5ty*  S.  31  Hill  ffitbranj 

Jfartlf  (Eamltna  Slat? 
(Enllpg? 


This  book  was  presented  by 

V,    J.    Ashbaugh 
Prominent   N.    C.    Dairyman 

SF239 
F62 


-Z 


1 


NORTH  CAROLINA  STATE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 


S01950178  V 


This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated 
below  and  is  subject  to  an  overdue  fine 
as  posted  at  the  Circulation  Desk. 


SEP  U1977 


Milch  Cows 


DAIRY   FARMING 


COMPRISING 


The  Breeds,  Breeding,  and  Management  in  Health  and 

Disease,  of  Dairy  and  other  Stock  ;  the  Selection 

of  Milch  Cows,  with  a  Full  Explanation  of 

Guenon's  Method  ;  the  Culture  of 

Forage  Plants,  &c. 


by 
CHARLES    L.    FLINT, 

Author   of   "  Grasses   and   Forage  Plants,"    &c,   &c 


BOSTON : 
J.    E.    TILTON    AND    COMPANY. 

1867. 


Entered  ace  rating  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1858,  by 

CHARLES    L.    FLINT, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


Printed  by  Geo.  C.  Ranij  &  Avery,  Boston. 


So 

THE  MASS.  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

THE 

MASS.    SOCIETY   FOR  THE   PROMOTION   OF   AGRICULTURE, 

VXD     THE     VARIOUS 

AGRICULTURAL   SOCIETIES   OK   THE  UNITED   STATES. 

WHOSE      EFFORTS      HAVE     CONTRIBUTED      SO      LARGELY      TO      IMPROVE      THE 

DAIRY  STOCK  OF  OUR  COUNTRY 

DESIGNED     TO     ADVANCE    THAT     HIGHLY     IMPORTANT     INTEREST, 
IS      RESPECT  F  IT  LLY      DEDICATED, 

B  V 

THE    AUTHOR. 


PREFACE 


This  work  is  designed  to  embody  the  most  recent 
information  on  the  subject  of  dairy  farming.  My  aim 
has  been  to  make  a  practically  useful  book.  With  this 
view,  I  have  treated  of  the  several  breeds  of  stock. 
the  diseases  to  which  they  are  subject,  the  established 
principles  of  breeding,  the  feeding  and  management  of 
milch  cows,  the  raising  of  calves  intended  for  the  dairy, 
and  the  culture  of  grasses  and  plants  to  be  used  as  fodder. 

For  the  chapter  on  the  diseases  of  stock,  I  am  largely 
indebted  to  Dr.  C.  M.  Wood,  Professor  of  the  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  and  to  Dr.  Geo. 
H.  Dadd,  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  both 
of  the  Boston  Veterinary  Institute.  If  this  chapter 
contributes  anything  to  promote  a  more  humane  and 
judicious  treatment  of  cattle  when  suffering  from  dis- 
ease, I  shall  feel  amply  repaid  for  the  labor  bestowed 
upon  the  whole  work. 

The  chapter  on  the  Dutch  dairy,  which  I  have  trans- 
lated from  the  German,  will  be  found  to  be  of  great 
practical  value,  as  suggesting  much  that  is  applicable 
to  our  American  dairies.  This  chapter  has  never  before, 
to  my  knowledge,  appeared  in  English. 

The  full  and  complete  explanation  of  Guenon's  method 
of  judging  and  selecting  milch  cows,  —  a  method  origin- 
ally regarded  as  theoretical,  but  now  generally  admitted 
to  be  very  useful  in  practice, —  I  have  translated  from 
the  last  edition  of  the  treatise  of  M.  Magne,  a  very 
sensible  French  writer,  who  has  done  good  service  to 
the  agricultural  public  by  the  clearness  and  simplicity 
with  which  he  has  freed  that  system  from  its  compli- 
cated details. 


VIII  PREFACE. 

The  work  will  be  found  to  contain  an  account  of  the 
most  enlightened  practice  in  this  country,  in  the  state- 
ments of  those  actually  engaged  in  dairy  farming ;  the 
details  of  the  dairy  husbandry  of  Holland,  where  this 
branch  of  industry  is  made  a  specialty  to  greater  extent, 
and  is  consequently  carried  to  a  higher  degree  of  per- 
fection, than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world ;  and  the 
most  recent  and  productive  modes  of  management  in 
English  dairy  farming,  embracing  a  large  amount  of 
practical  and  scientific  information,  not  hitherto  pre- 
sented to  the  American  public  in  an  available  form. 

Nothing  need  be  said  of  the  usefulness  of  a  treatise 
on  the  dairy.  The  number  of  milch  cows  in  the  coun- 
try, forming  so  large  a  part  of  our  material  wealth,  and 
serving  as  a  basis  for  the  future  increase  and  improve- 
ment of  every  class  of  neat  stock,  on  which  the  pros- 
perity of  our  agriculture  mainly  depends  ;  the  intrinsic 
value  of  milk  as  an  article  of  internal  commerce,  and  as 
a  most  healthy  and  nutritious  food ;  the  vast  quantity 
of  it  made  into  butter  and  cheese,  and  used  in  every 
family  ;  the  endless  details  of  the  management,  feeding, 
and  treatment,  of  dairy  stock,  and  the  care  and  atten- 
tion requisite  to  obtain  from  this  branch  of  farming  the 
highest  profit,  all  concur  to  make  the  want  of  such  a 
treatise,  adapted  to  our  climate  and  circumstances,  felt 
not  only  by  practical  farmers,  but  by  a  large  class  of 
consumers,  who  can  appreciate  every  improvement 
which  may  be  made  in  preparing  the  products  of  the 
dairy  for  their  use. 

The  writer  has  had  some  years  of  practical  experi- 
ence in  the  care  of  a  cheese  and  butter  dairy,  to  which 
has  been  added  a  wide  range  of  observation  in  some  of 
the  best  dairy  districts  of  the  country  ;  and  it  is  hoped 
that  the  work  now  submitted  to  the  public  will  meet 
that  degree  of  favor  usually  accorded  to  an  earnest 
effort  to  do  something  to  advance  the  cause  of  agricul- 
ture. 


DAIRY  FARMING. 


CHAPTER     I. 


INTRODUCTORY.  — THE     VARIOUS     RACES     OF     PURE 
BRED    CATTLE    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

The  milking  qualities  of  our  domestic  cows  are,  to 
some  extent,  artificial,  the  result  of  care  and  breeding. 
In  the  natural  or  wild  state,  the  cow  yields  only 
enough  to  nourish  her  offspring  for  a  few  weeks,  and 
then  goes  dry  for  several  months,  or  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  There  is,  therefore,  a  constant  tend- 
ency to  revert  to  that  condition,  which  is  prevented 
only  by  judicious  treatment,  designed  to  develop  and 
increase  the  milking  qualities  so  valuable  to  the  human 
race.  If  this  judicious  treatment  is  continued  through 
several  generations  of  the  same  family  or  race  of  ani- 
mals, the  qualities  which  it  is  calculated  to  develop 
become  more  or  less  fixed,  and  capable  of  transmission. 
Instead  of  being  exceptional,  or  peculiar  to  an  indi- 
vidual, they  become  the  permanent  characteristics  of 
a  breed.  Hence  the  origin  of  a  great  variety  of 
breeds  or  races,  the  characteristics  of  each  being  due 
to  local  circumstances,  such  as  climate,  soil,  and  the 
special  objects  of  the  breeder,  which  may  be  the  pro- 
duction of  milk,  butter  and  cheese,  or  the  raising  of 
beef  or  working  cattle. 

A  knowledge  of  the  history  of  different  breeds,  and 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

especially  of  the  dairy  breeds,  is  of  manifest  import- 
ance. Though  very  excellent  milkers  will  sometimes 
be  found  in  all  of  them,  and  of  a  great  variety  of  forms, 
the  most  desirable  dairy  qualities  will  generally  be 
found  to  have  become  fixed  and  permanent  character- 
istics of  some  to  a  greater  extent  than  of  others  ;  but 
it  does  not  follow  that  a  race  whose  milking  qualities 
have  not  been  developed  is  of  less  value  for  other  pur- 
poses, and  for  qualities  which  have  been  brought  out 
with  greater  care.  A  brief  sketch  of  the  principal 
breeds  of  American  cattle,  as  well  as  of  the  grades  or 
the  common  stock  of  the  country,  will  aid  the  farmer, 
perhaps,  in  making  an  intelligent  selection  with  refer- 
ence to  the  special  object  of  pursuit,  whether  it  be  the 
dairy,  the  production  of  beef,  or  the  raising  of  cattle  for 
work. 

In  a  subsequent  chapter  on  the  selection  of  milch 
cows,  the  standard  of  perfection  will  be  discussed  in 
detail,  and  the  characteristics  of  each  of  the  races  will 
naturally  be  measured  by  that.  In  this  connection,  and 
as  preliminary  to  the  following  sketches,  it  may  be 
stated  that,  whatever  breed  may  be  selected,  a  full  sup- 
ply of  food  and  proper  shelter  are  absolutely  essential 
to  the  maintenance  of  an}^  milking  stock,  the  food  of 
which  goes  to  supply  not  only  the  ordinary  waste  of 
the  system  common  to  all  animals,  but  also  the  milk 
secretions,  which  are  greater  in  some  than  in  others. 
A  large  animal  on  a  poor  pasture  has  to  travel  much 
further  to  fill  itself  than  a  small  one.  A  small  or 
medium-sized  cow  would  return  more  milk  in  propor- 
tion to  the  food  consumed,  under  such  circumstances, 
than  a  large  one. 

In  selecting  any  breed,  therefore,  regard  should  be 
had  to  the  circumstances  of  the  farmer,  and  the  object 
to  be  pursued.     The  cow  most  profitable  for  the  milk- 


THE     AYRSHIRES.  11 

dairy  may  be  very  unprofitable  in  the  butter  and  cheese 
dairy,  as  well  as  for  the  production  of  beef;  while  for 
either  of  the  latter  objects  the  cow  which  gave  the 
largest  quantity  of  milk  might  prove  very  unprofitable. 
It  is  desirable  to  secure  a  union  and  harmony  of  all  good 
qualities,  so  far  as  possible ;  and  the  farmer  wants  a  cow 
that  will  milk  well  for  some  years,  and  then,  when  dry, 
fatten  readily,  and  sell  to  the  butcher  for  the  highest 
price.  These  qualities,  though  often  supposed  to  be 
incompatible,  will  be  found  to  be  united  in  some  breeds 
to  a  greater  extent  than  in  others ;  while  some  pecu- 
liarities of  form  have  been  found,  by  observation,  to  be 
better  adapted  to  the  production  of  milk  and  beef  than 
others.     This  will  appear  in  the  following  pages. 


Fig.  1.     Ayrshire  Cow,  imported  and  owned  by  Dr.  Geo.  B.  Loring,  Salem,  Mass. 

The  Ayrshires  are  justly  celebrated  throughout 
Great  Britain  and  this  country  for  their  excellent  dairy 
qualities.  Though  the  most  recent  in  their  origin,  they 
are  pretty  distinct  from  the  other  Scotch  and  English 
races.     In  color,  the  pure  Ayrshires  are  generally  red 


12  POINTS. —  ORIGIN. 

and  white,  spotted  or  mottled,  not  roan  like  many  of  the 
short-horns,  but  often  presenting  a  bright  contrast  of 
colors.  They  are  sometimes,  though  rarely,  nearly  or 
quite  all  red,  and  sometimes  black  and  white  ;  but  the 
favorite  color  is  red  and  white  brightly  contrasted,  and 
by  some,  strawberry-color  is  preferred.  The  head  is 
small,  fine,  and  clean ;  the  face  long,  and  narrow  at  the 
muzzle,  with  a  sprightly  yet  generally  mild  expression ; 
eye  small,  smart,  and  lively ;  the  horns  short,  fine,  and 
slightly  twisted  upwards,  set  wide  apart  at  the  roots  ; 
the  neck  thin ;  body  enlarging  from  fore  to  hind  quar- 
ters ;  the  back  straight  and  narrow,  but  broad  across 
the  loin ;  joints  rather  loose  and  open ;  ribs  rather  flat ; 
hind  quarters  rather  thin  ;-bone  fine  ;  tail  long,  fine  and 
bushy  at  the  end  ;  hair  generally  thin  and  soft ;  udder 
light  color  and  capacious,  extending  well  forward  under 
the  belly ;  teats  of  the  cow  of  medium  size,  generally 
set  regularly  and  wide  apart ;  milk-veins  prominent  and 
well  developed.  The  carcass  of  the  pure-bred  Ayrshire 
is  light,  particularly  the  fore  quarters,  which  is  consid- 
ered by  good  judges  as  an  index  of  great  milking  qual- 
ities ;  but  the  pelvis  is  capacious  and  wide  over  the  hips. 
On  the  whole,  the  Ayrshire  is  good-looking,  but 
wants  some  of  the  symmetry  and  aptitude  to  fatten 
which  characterize  the  short-horn,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  contributed  to  build  up  this  valuable  breed 
on  the  basis  of  the  original  stock  of  the  county  of 
Ayr;  a  county  extending  along  the  eastern  shore 
of  the  Frith  of  Clyde,  in  the  south-western  part  of 
Scotland,  and  divided  into  three  districts,  known  as 
Carrick,  Cunningham,  and  Kyle :  the  first  famous  as 
the  lordship  of  Robert  Bruce,  the  last  for  the  produc- 
tion of  this,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  dairy  breeds 
of  cows  in  the  world.  The  original  stock  of  this 
county,  which  undoubtedly  formed    the    basis    of  the 


HISTORY.  —  EARLY    STOCK    OP    AYR.  18 

present  Ayrshire  breed,  are  described  by  Aiton,  in  his 
Treatise  on  the  Dairy  Breed  of  Coivs,  as  of  a  diminu- 
tive size,  ill  fed,  ill  shaped,  and  yielding  but  a  scanty 
return  in  milk.  They  were  mostly  of  a  black  color, 
with  large  stripes  of  white  along  the  chine  and  ridge  of 
their  backs,  about  the  flanks,  and  on  their  faces.  Their 
horns  were  high  and  crooked,  having  deep  ringlets  at 
the  root,  —  the  plainest  proof  that  the  cattle  were  but 
scantily  fed  ;  the  chine  of  their  backs  stood  up  high  and 
narrow;  their  sides  were  lank,  short,  and  thin;  their 
hides  thick,  and  adhering  to  their  bones ;  their  pile  was 
coarse  and  open ;  and  few  of  them  yielded  more  than 
six  or  eight  quarts  of  milk  a  day  when  in  their  best 
plight,  or  weighed  when  fat  more  than  from  twelve  to 
sixteen  or  twenty  stones  avoirdupois,  at  eight  pounds 
the  stone,  sinking  offal. 

"  It  was  impossible,"  he  continues,  "  that  these  cattle, 
fed  as  they  then  were,  could  be  of  great  weight,  well 
shaped,  or  yield  much  milk.  Their  only  food  in  winter 
and  spring  was  oat-straw,  and  what  they  could  pick  up 
in  the  fields,  to  which  they  were  turned  out  almost 
every  day,  with  a  mash  of  weak  corn  and  chaff  daily  for 
a  few  days  after  calving ;  and  their  pasture  in  summer 
was  of  the  very  worst  quality,  and  eaten  so  bare  that 
the  cattle  were  half  starved,  and  had  the  aspect  of 
starvelings.  A  wonderful  change  has  since  been  madt> 
in  the  condition,  aspect,  and  qualities,  of  the  Ayrshire 
dairy  stock.  They  are  not  now  the  meagre,  unshapely 
animals  they  were  about  forty  years  ago ;  but  have 
completely  changed  into  something  as  different  from 
what  they  were  then  as  any  two  breeds  in  the  island 
can  be  from  each  other.  They  are  almost  double  the 
size,  and  yield  about  four  times  the  quantity  of  milk 
that  the  Ayrshire  cows  then  yielded.  They  were  not 
of  any  specific  breed,  nor  uniformity  of  shapes  or  color : 
2 


14  AITON'S     RECOLLECTIONS. 

neither  was   there   any  fixed  standard  by  which  they 
could  be  judged. " 

Aiton  wrote  in  1815,  and  even  then  the  Ayrshire  cat- 
tle had  been  completely  changed  from  what  they  were 
in  1770,  and  had,  to  a  considerable  extent,  at  least,  set- 
tled clown  into  a  breed  with  fixed  characteristics,  distin- 
guished especially  for  an  abundant  flow  and  a  rich  qual- 
ity of  milk.  A  large  part  of  the  improvement  then 
manifested  was  due  to  better  feeding  and  care,  but 
much,  no  doubt,  to  judicious  crossing.  Strange  as  it 
may  seem,  considering  the  modern  origin  of  this  breed, 
"  all  that  is  certainly  known  is  that  a  century  ago  there 
was  no  such  breed  as  Cunningham  or  Ayrshire  in  Scot- 
land. Did  the  Ayrshire  cattle  arise  entirely  from  a 
careful  selection  of  the  best  native  breed  ?  If  they  did, 
it  is  a  circumstance  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  agri- 
culture. The  native  breed  may  be  ameliorated  by  care- 
ful selection  ;  its  value  may  be  incalculably  increased ; 
some  good  qualities,  some  of  its  best  qualities,  may  be 
for  the  first  time  developed ;  but  yet  there  will  be  some 
resemblance  to  the  original  stock,  and  the  more  we 
examine  the  animal  the  more  clearly  we  can  trace  out 
the  characteristic  points  of  the  ancestor,  although  every 
one  of  them  is  improved." 

Aiton  remembered  well  the  time  when  some  short- 
horn or  Dutch  cattle,  as  they  were  then  called,  were 
procured  by  some  gentlemen  in  Scotland,  and  particu- 
larly by  one  John  Dunlop,  of  Cunningham,  who  brought 
some  Dutch  cows  —  doubtless  short-horns  —  to  his 
byres  soon  after  the  year  1760.  As  they  were  then 
provided  with  the  best  of  pasture,  and  the  dairy  was 
the  chief  object  of  the  neighborhood,  these  cattle  soon 
excited  attention,  and  the  small  farmers  began  to  raise 
up  crosses  from  them.  This  was  in  Cunningham,  one 
of  the  districts  of  Ayrshire,  and  Mr.  Dunlop's   were. 


THE   TEESWATER.  —  DUTCH.  15 

without  doubt,  among  the  first  of  the  stranger  breed 
that  reached  that  region.  About  1750,  a  little  previous 
to  the  above  date,  the  Earl  of  Marchmont  bought  of  the 
Bishop  of  Durham  several  cows  and  a  bull  of  the  Tees- 
water  breed,  all  of  a  brown  color  spotted  with  white, 
and  kept  them  some  time  at  his  seat  in  Berwickshire. 
His  lordship  had  extensive  estates  in  Kyle,  another  dis- 
trict of  Ayrshire,  and  thither  his  factor,  Bruce  Camp- 
bell, took  some  of  the  Teeswater  breed  and  kept  them 
for  some  time,  and  their  progeny  spread  over  various 
parts  of  Ayrshire.  A  bull,  after  serving  many  cows  of 
the  estates  already  mentioned,  was  sold  to  a  Mr.  Hamil- 
ton, in  another  quarter  of  Ayrshire,  and  raised  a  numer- 
ous offspring. 

About  the  year  1767,  also,  John  Orr  sent  from  Glas- 
gow to  his  estate  in  Ayrshire  some  fine  milch  cows,  of 
a  much  larger  size  than  any  then  in  that  region.  One 
of  them  cost  six  pounds,  which  was  more  than  twice 
the  price  of  the  best  cow  in  that  quarter.  These  cows 
were  well  fed,  and  of  course  yielded  a  large  return  of 
milk ;  and  the  farmers,  for  miles  around,  were  eager  to 
get  their  calves  to  raise. 

About  the  same  time,  also,  a  few  other  noblemen  and 
gentlemen,  stimulated  by  example,  bought  cattle  of  the 
same  appearance,  in  color  brown  spotted  with  white,  all 
of  them  larger  than  the  native  cattle  of  the  county, 
and  when  well  fed  yielding  much  larger  quantities  of 
milk,  and  their  calves  were  all  raised.  Bulls  of  their 
I  reed  and  color  were  preferred  to  all  others. 

From  the  description  given  of  these  cattle,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  they  were  the  old  Teeswater,  or  Dutch  ; 
the  foundation,  also,  according  to  the  best  authorities,  of 
the  modern  improved  short-horns.  With  them  and  the 
crosses  obtained  from  them  the  whole  county  gradu- 
ally  became    stocked,   and    supplied    the   neighboring 


16  EFFECT    OF    INJUDICIOUS    CROSSING. 

counties,  by  degrees,  till  at  present  the  whole  region, 
comprising  the  counties  of  Ayr,  Renfrew,  Lanark,  Dum- 
barton, and  Stirling,  and  more  than  a  fourth  part  of  the 
whole  population  of  Scotland,  a  large  proportion  of 
which  is  engaged  in  manufactures  and  commercial  or 
mechanical  pursuits,  furnishing  a  ready  market  for  milk 
and  butter,  is  almost  exclusively  stocked  with  Ayrshires. 

The  cross  with  larger  cattle  and  the  natives  of  Ayr 
shire  produced,  for  many  years,  an  ugly-looking  beast, 
and  the  farmers  were  long  in  finding  out  that  they  had 
violated  one  of  the  plain  principles  of  breeding  in 
coupling  a  large  and  small  breed  so  indiscriminately 
together,  especially  in  the  use  of  bulls  proportionately 
larger  than  the  cows  to  which  they  were  put.  They 
did  not  then  understand  that  no  crosses  could  be  made 
in  that  way  to  increase  the  size  of  a  race,  without  a 
corresponding  increase  in  the  feed ;  and  many  very 
ill-shaped  animals  were  the  consequence  of  ignorance 
of  a  natural  law.  They  made  large  bones,  but  they 
were  never  strong  and  vigorous  in  proportion  to  their 
size.  Trying  to  keep  large  animals  on  poor  pasture 
produced  the  same  effect.  The  results  of  first  crosses 
were  therefore  very  unsatisfactory ;  but  gradually  bet- 
ter feeding  and  a  reduction  in  size  came  to  their  aid, 
while  in  the  course  of  years  more  enlightened  views  of 
farming  led  to  higher  cultivation,  and  consequently  to 
higher  and  better  care  and  attention  to  stock.  The 
effect  of  crosses  with  the  larger  Teeswater  or  short- 
horn was  not  so  disastrous  in  Ayrshire  as  in  some  ot 
the  mountain  breeds,  whose  feed  was  far  less,  while 
their  exposure  on  high  and  short  pastures  was  greater. 

The  climate  of  Ayrshire  is  moist  and  mild,  and  the 
soil  rich,  clayey,  and  well  adapted  to  pasturage,  but 
difficult  to  till.  The  cattle  are  naturally  hardy  and 
active,  and  capable  of  enduring   severe   winters,  and 


IMPROVEMENTS. —  FORM  OF  THE  BULL.     17 

of  easily  regaining  condition  with  the  return  of  spring 
and  good  feed.  The  pasture-land  of  the  county  is 
devoted  to  dairy  stock, —  chiefly  for  making  butter 
and  cheese,  a  small  part  only  being  used  for  fattening 
cows  when  too  old  to  keep  for  the  dairy.  The  breed 
has  undergone  very  marked  improvements  since  Aiton 
wrote,  in  1815.  The  local  demand  for  fresh  dairy  prod- 
ucts has  very  naturally  taxed  the  skill  and  judgment  of 
the  farmers  and  dairy-men  to  the  utmost,  through  a 
long  course  of  years  ;  and  thus  the  remarkable  milking 
qualities  of  the  A}Trshires  have  been  developed  to  such  a 
degree  that  they  may  be  said  to  produce  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  rich  milk  and  butter  in  proportion  to  the  food 
consumed,  or  the  cost  of  production,  than  any  other  of 
the  pure-bred  races.  The  owners  of  dairies  in  the 
county  of  Ayr  and  the  neighborhood  were  generally 
small  tenants,  who  took  charge  of  their  stock  them- 
selves, saving  and  breeding  from  the  offspring  of  good 
milkers,  and  drying  off  and  feeding  such  as  were  found 
to  be  unprofitable  for  milk,  for  the  butcher ;  and  thus  the 
production  of  milk  and  butter  has  for  many  years  been 
the  leading  object  with  the  owners  of  this  breed,  and 
symmetry  of  form  and  perfection  of  points  for  any  other 
object  have  been  very  much  disregarded,  or,  if  regarded 
at  all,  only  from  this  one  point  of  view  —  the  produc- 
tion of  the  greatest  quantity  of  rich  milk. 

The  manner  in  which  this  result  has  been  brought 
about  may  further  be  seen  in  a  remark  of  Aiton,  who 
says  that  the  Ayrshire  farmers  prefer  their  dairy  bulls 
according  to  the  feminine  aspect  of  their  heads  and 
necks,  and  wish  them  not  round  behind,  but  broad  at 
the  hook-bones  and  hips,  and  full  in  the  flanks.  This 
was  more  than  forty  years  ago,  and  under  such  circum- 
stances, and  with  such  care  in  the  selection  of  bulls  and 
cows  with  reference  to  one  specific  object,  it  is  not 
2*  2 


18 


Y I E  L  D .  —  Q  U  A  X  Tl  T  Y .  —  QUALITY. 


surprising  that  we  find  a  breed  now  wholly  unsurpassed 
when  the  quantity  and  quality  of  their  produce  is  con- 
sidered with   reference   to   their  proportional  size  and 


Fig.  2.      Ayrshire  Bull  "Albert."' 
Imported  and  owned  by  the  Mass.  Soc.  for  Promoting  Agriculture. 

the  food  they  consume.  The  Ayrshire  cow  has  been 
known  to  produce  over  ten  imperial  gallons  of  good 
milk  a  day. 

A  cow-feeder  in  Glasgow,  selling  fresh  milk,  is  said 
to  have  realized  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  in  seven 
months  from  one  good  cow ;  and  it  is  stated,  on  high 
authority,  that  a  dollar  a  day  for  six  months  of  the  year 
is  no  uncommon  income  from  good  cows  under  similar 
circumstances,  and  that  seventy-five  cents  a  day  is  be- 
low the  average.  But  this  implies  high  and  judicious 
feeding,  of  course :  the  average  yield,  on  ordinary  feed 
would  be  considerably  less. 

Youatt  estimates  the  daily  yield  of  an  Ayrshire  cow, 
for  the  first  two  or  three  months  after  calving,  at  five 
gallons  a  day,  on  an  average  ;  for  the  next  three  months, 
at  three  gallons ;  and  for  the  next  four  months,  at  one 
gallon  and  a  half.     This  would  be   850   gallons  as  the 


YIELD    INFLUENCED.   BY    CLIMATE.  1*> 

annual  average  of  a  cow  ;  but,  allowing  for  some  unpro- 
ductive cows,  he  estimates  the  average  of  a  dairy  at  600 
gallons  per  annum  for  each  cow.  Three  gallons  and  a 
half  of  the  Ayrshire  cow's  milk  will  yield  one  and  a 
half  pounds  of  butter.  He  therefore  reckons  257 
pounds  of  butter,  or  514  pounds  of  cheese,  at  the  rate 
of  21  pounds  to  28  gallons  of  milk,  as  the  yield  of  every 
cow,  at  a  fair  and  perhaps  rather  low  average,  in  an 
Ayrshire  dairy,  during  the  year.  Aiton  sets  the  yield 
much  higher,  saying  that  "  thousands  of  the  best  Ayr- 
shire dairy-cows,  when  in  prime  condition  and  well  fed, 
produce  1000  gallons  of  milk  per  annum ;  that  in  gene- 
ral three  and  three  quarters  to  four  gallons  of  their  milk 
will  yield  a  pound  and  a  half  of  butter ;  and  that  27^ 
gallons  of  their  milk  will  make  21  pounds  of  full-milk 
cheese."  Mr.  Rankin  puts  it  lower — at  about  650  to 
700  gallons  to  each  cow ;  on  his  own  farm  of  inferior 
soil,  his  dairy  produced  an  average  of  550  gallons  only. 
One  of  the  four  cows  originally  imported  into  this 
country  by  John  P.  Cushing,  Esq.,  of  Massachusetts, 
gave  in  one  year  3864  quarts,  beer  measure,  or  about 
966  gallons,  at  ten  pounds  to  the  gallon,  being  an  aver- 
age of  over  ten  and  a  half  beer  quarts  a  day  for  the 
whole  year.  It  is  asserted,  on  good  authority,  that  the 
first  Ayrshire  cow  imported  by  the  Massachusetts  Soci- 
ety for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture,  in  1837,  yielded 
sixteen  pounds  of  butter  a  week,  for  several  weeks  in 
succession,  on  grass  feed  only.  These  yields  are  not 
so  large  as  those  stated  by  Aiton  ;  but  it  should,  per- 
haps, be  recollected  that  our  climate  is  less  favorable 
to  the  production  of  milk  than  that  of  England  and  Scot- 
land,  and  that  no  cow  imported  after  arriving  at  matur- 
ity could  be  expected  to  yield  as  much,  under  the  same 
circumstances,  as  one  bred  on  the  spot  where  the  trial 
is  made,  and  perfectly  acclimated. 


20  COMPARATIVE    TRIALS. —  HARLEY. 

In  a  series  of  experiments  on  the  Earl  of  Chester- 
field's dairy  farm,  at  Bradley  Hall,  interesting  as  giving 
positive  data  on  which  to  form  a  judgment  as  to  the 
yield,  it  was  found  that,  in  the  height  of  the  season,  the 
Holderness  cows  gave  7  gallons  1  quart  per  diem ;  the 
long-horns  and  Alderneys,  4  gallons  3  quarts ;  the  Dev- 
ons,  4  gallons  1  quart ;  and  that,  when  made  into  butter, 
the  above  quantities  gave,  respectively,  384-  ounces,  28 
ounces,  and  25  ounces. 

The  Ayrshire,  a  cow  far  smaller  than  the  Holderness, 
at  5  gallons  of  milk  and  34  ounces  of  butter  per  day, 
gives  a  fair  average  as  to  yield  of  milk,  and  an  enor- 
mous production  of  butter,  giving  within  4^-  ounces  as 
much  from  her  5  gallons  as  the  Holderness  from  her  7 
gallons  1  quart ;  her  rate  being  nearly  7  ounces  to  the 
gallon,  while  that  of  the  Holderness  is  considerably 
under  6  ounces. 

The  evidence  of  a  large  and  practical  dairyman  is  cer- 
tainly of  the  highest  value ;  and  in  this  connection  it 
may  be  stated  that  Mr.  Harley,  the  author  of  the  Harle- 
ian  Dairy  System,  who  established  the  celebrated  Wil- 
lowbank  Dairy,  in  Glasgow,  and  who  kept,  at  times, 
from  two  hundred  and  sixty  to  three  hundred  cows, 
always  using  the  utmost  care  in  selection,  says  that  he 
had  cows,  by  way  of  experiment,  from  different  parts 
of  the  united  kingdom.  He  purchased  ten  at  one  Edin- 
burgh market,  of  the  large  short-horned  breed,  at 
twenty  pounds  each,  but  these  did  not  give  more  milk, 
nor  better  in  quality,  than  Ayrshire  cows  that  were 
bought  at  the  same  period  for  thirteen  pounds  a  head ; 
and,  on  comparison,  it  was  found  that  the  latter  were 
much  cheaper  kept,  and  that  they  improved  much  more 
in  beef  and  fat  in  proportion  to  their  size,  than  the 
high-priced  cows.  A  decided  preference  was  therefore 
given  to  the  improved  Ayrshire  breed,  from   seven  to 


BUYING.  —  HARLEY'S    RULES.  21 

ten  years  old,  and  from  eight  to  twenty  pounds  a  head. 
Prime  young  cows  were  too  high-priced  for  stall  feed- 
ing ;  old  cows  were  generally  the  most  profitable  in  the 
long  run,  especially  if  they  were  not  previously  in  good 
keeping.  The  cows  were  generally  bought  when  near 
calving,  which  prevented  the  barbarous  practice  called 
hafting,  or  allowing  the  milk  to  remain  upon  the  cow 
for  a  considerable  time  before  she  is  brought  to  the 
market.  This  base  and  cruel  custom  is  always  perni- 
cious to  the  cow,  and  in  consequence  of  it  she  seldom 
recovers  her  milk  for  the  season.  The  middling  and 
large  sizes  of  cows  were  preferred,  such  as  weighed 
from  thirty-five  to  fifty  stone,  or  from  five  hundred  to 
eight  hundred  pounds. 

According  to  Mr.  Harley,  the  most  approved  shape 
and  marks  of  a  good  dairy  cow  are  as  follows :  Head 
small,  long,  and  narrow  towards  the  muzzle ;  horns 
small,  clear,  bent,  and  placed  at  considerable  distance 
from  each  other ;  eyes  not  large,  but  brisk  and  lively ; 
neck  slender  and  long,  tapering  towards  the  head,  with 
a  little  loose  skin  below ;  shoulders  and  fore  quarters 
light  and  thin;  hind  quarters  large  and  broad;  back 
straight,  and  joints  slack  and  open ;  carcass  deep  in  the 
rib ;  tail  small  and  long,  reaching  to  the  heels ;  legs 
small  and  short,  with  firm  joints ;  udder  square,  but  a 
little  oblong,  stretching  forward,  thin-skinned  and  capa- 
cious, but  not  low  hung;  teats  or  paps  small,  pointing 
outwards,  and  at  a  considerable  distance  from  each 
other ;  milk-veins  capacious  and  prominent ;  skin  loose, 
thin,  and  soft  like  a  glove  ;  hair  short,  soft,  and  woolly  ; 
general  figure,  when  in  flesh,  handsome  and  well  pro- 
portioned. 

If  this  description  of  the  Ayrshire  cow  be  correct,  it 
will  be  seen  that  her  head  and  neck  are  remarkably 
clean  and  fine,  the  latter  swelling  gradually  towards  the 


22  DOCILITY. —  TREATMENT. 

shoulders,  both  parts  being  unincumbered  with  superflu- 
ous flesh.  The  same  general  form  extends  backwards, 
the  fore  quarters  being  light,  the  shoulders  thin,  and  the 
carcass  swelling  out  towards  the  hind  quarters,  so  that 
standing  in  front  of  her  it  has  the  form  of  a  blunted 
wedge.  Such  a  structure  indicates  very  fully  devel- 
oped digestive  organs,  which  exert  a  powerful  influence 
on  the  exercise  of  all  the  functions  of  the  body,  and 
especially  on  the  secretion  of  the  milky  glands,  accom- 
panied with  milk-veins  and  udder  partaking  of  the  same 
character  as  the  stomach  and  viscera,  being  large  and 
capacious,  while  the  external  skin  and  interior  walls  of 
the  milk-glands  are  thin  and  elastic,  and  all  parts 
arranged  in  a  manner  especially  calculated  for  the  pro- 
duction of  milk. 

A  cow  with  these  marks  will  generally  be  of  a  quiet 
and  docile  temper,  which  greatly  enhances  her  value. 
A  cow  that  is  of  a  quiet  and  contented  disposition  feeds 
at  ease,  is  milked  with  ease,  and  yields  more  than  one 
of  an  opposite  temperament;  while  after  she  is  past  her 
usefulness  as  a  milker  she  will  easily  take  on  fat,  and 
make  fine  beef  and  a  good  quantity  of  tallow,  because 
she  feeds  freely,  and  when  dry  the  food  which  went  to 
make  milk  is  converted  into  fat  and  flesh.  But  there  is  no 
breed  of  cows  with  which  gentleness  of  treatment  is  so 
indispensable  as  with  the  Ayrshire,  on  account  of  her 
naturally  nervous  temperament.  If  she  receive  other 
than  kind  and  gentle  treatment,  she  will  often  resent  it 
with  angry  looks  and  gestures,  and  withhold  her  milk ; 
and  if  such  treatment  is  long  continued,  will  dry  up ; 
but  she  willingly  and  easily  yields  it  to  the  hand  that 
fondles  her,  and  all  her  looks  and  movements  towards 
her  friends  are  quiet  and  mild. 

As  already  remarked,  the  Ayrshires  in  their  native 
country  are  generally  bred  for  the  dairy,  and  no  other 


CROSSES.  —  FATTENING    QUALITIES.  23 

object;  and  the  cows  have  obtained  a  just  and  world- 
wide reputation  for  this  quality.  The  oxen  are,  however, 
very  fair  as  working  cattle,  though  they  cannot  be  said 
to  excel  other  breeds  in  this  respect.  The  Ayrshire 
steer  may  be  fed  and  turned  at  three  years  old,  but  for 
feeding  purposes  the  Ayrshires  are  greatly  improved 
by  a  cross  with  the  short-horns,  provided  regard  is  had 
to  the  size  of  the  animals.  It  is  the  opinion  of  good 
breeders  that  a  high-bred  short-horn  bull  and  a  large- 
sized  Ayrshire  cow  will  produce  a  calf  which  will  come 
to  maturity  earlier,  and  attain  greater  weight,  and  sell 
for  more  money,  than  a  pure-bred  Ayrshire.  This  cross, 
with  feeding  from  the  start,  may  be  sold  fat  at  two  or 
three  years  old,  the  improvement  being  especially  seen 
in  the  earlier  maturity  and  the  size.  Even  Youatt, 
who  maintains  that  the  fattening  properties  of  the  Ayr- 
shires have  been  somewhat  exaggerated,  admits  that 
they  will  fatten  kindly  and  profitably,  and  that  their 
meat  will  be  good;  while  he  also  asserts  that  they 
unite,  perhaps,  to  a  greater  degree  than  any  other 
breed,  the  supposed  incompatible  qualities  of  yielding 
a  great  deal  of  milk  and  beef. 

In  the  cross  with  the  short-horn,  the  form  becomes 
ordinarily  more  symmetrical,  while  there  is,  perhaps, 
little  risk  of  lessening  the  milking  qualities  of  the  off- 
spring, if  sufficient  regard  is  paid  to  the  selection  of  the 
individual  animals  to  breed  from.  It  is  thought  by 
some  that  in  the  breeding  of  animals  it  is  the  male 
which  gives  the  external  form,  or  the  bony  and  muscu- 
lar system  of  the  young,  while  the  female  imparts  the 
respiratory  organs,  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  the 
mucous  membranes,  the  organs  of  secretion,  &c. 

If  this  principle  is  true,  it  follows  that  the  milking 
qualities  come  chiefly  from  the  mother,  and  that  the 
bull    can    not    materially  alter   the    conditions   which 


24  SELECTIONS  FOR  BREEDING. 

determine  the  transmission  of  these  qualities,  especially 
when  they  are  as  strongly  marked  as  they  are  in  the 
Ayrshire  or  the  Jersey  races.  Others,  however,  main- 
tain that  it  is  more  important  to  the  perfection  of  their 
dairy  to  make  a  good  choice  of  bulls  than  of  heifers, 
because  the  property  of  giving  much  milk  is  more 
surely  transmitted  by  the  male  than  the  female.  Others 
still  maintain  that  both  parents  are  represented  in  the 
offspring,  but  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  beforehand 
what  parts  of  the  derivative  system  are  to  be  ascribed 
to  the  one  parent  and  what  to  the  other,  and  that  there 
is  a  blending  and  interfusion  of  the  qualities  of  both 
which  prevent  the  body  of  their  progeny  being  mapped 
out  into  distinct  regions,  or  divided  into  separate  sets 
of  organs,  of  which  we  can  say,  "  This  is  from  the 
father,  that  from  the  mother." 

Till  this  question  is  settled,  it  is  safe,  in  breeding  for 
the  dairy,  to  adhere  to  the  rule  of  selecting  only  ani- 
mals whose  progenitors  on  both  sides  have  been  distin- 
guished for  their  milking  qualities.  But  where  the  his- 
tory of  either  is  unknown,  a  resort  to  a  well-known 
breed,  remarkable  for  its  dairy  qualities,  is  of  no  small 
importance ;  since,  though  the  immediate  ancestors  of 
a  male  may  not  be  known,  if  he  belongs  to  a  dairy 
breed,  it  is  fair  to  presume  that  his  progenitors  were 
milkers.  A  study  and  comparison  of  the  size  and 
form  of  the  milk  mirror,  and  other  points,  indicated  by 
Guenon,  on  a  subsequent  page,  are  worthy  of  careful 
consideration  in  selecting  animals  to  breed  from  for  the 
dairy,  not  only  among  pure-bred  animals,  but  especially 
in  crossing.  In  the  scale  of  points  adopted  in  England 
and  this  country  as  the  standard  of  perfection  for  an 
Ayrshire  cow,  the  udder,  on  which  Guenon  placed  so 
much  reliance,  is  valued  at  twelve  times  as  much  as 


SUPERIORITY    OF    AYRSHIRES.  25 

that  of  the  Devon,  "  because/'  as  the  judges  affirm, 
"  the  Ayrshires  have  been  bred  almost  exclusively  with 
reference  to  their  milking  properties." 

We  must  conclude,  then,  that  "  for  purely  dairy  pur- 
poses the  Ayrshire  cow  deserves  the  first  place.  In 
consequence  of  her  small,  symmetrical,  and  compact 
body,  combined  with  a  well-formed  chest  and  a  capa- 
cious stomach,  there  is  little  waste,  comparatively 
speaking,  through  the  respiratory  system ;  while,  at  the 
same  time,  there  is  very  complete  assimilation  of  the 
food,  and  thus  she  converts  a  large  proportion  of  her 
food  into  milk.  So  remarkable  is  this  fact,  that  all  dairy 
farmers  who  have  any  experience  on  the  point  agree  in 
stating  that  an  Ayrshire  cow  generally  gives  a  larger 
return  of  milk  for  the  food  consumed  than  a  coiv  of  any 
other  breed.  The  absolute  quantity  may  not  be  so 
great,  but  it  is  obtained  at  a  less  cost ;  and  this  is  the 
point  upon  which  the  question  of  profit  depends." 

I  have  dwelt  thus  at  length  upon  this  race  for#the 
reason  that  it  is  preeminently  a  dairy  breed,  surpassing  all 
other  pure  breeds  in  the  production  of  rich  milk  and  but- 
ter on  soils  of  medium  fertility,  and  admirably  adapted, 
in  my  opinion,  to  raise  the  character  of  our  stock  to  a 
higher  standard  of  excellence.  The  best  milkers  I  have 
ever  known,  in  the  course  of  my  own  observations, 
were  grade  Ayrshires,  larger  in  size  than  the  pure 
bloods,  but  still  sufficiently  high  grades  to  give  certain 
signs  of  their  origin.  I  have  owned  several  such,  which 
were  all  good  cows.  This  grade  would  seem  to  possess 
the  advantage  of  combining,  to  some  extent,  the  two 
qualities  of  milking  and  adaptation  to  beef;  and  this 
is  no  small  recommendation  of  the  stock  to  farmers 
situated  as  American  farmers  are,  who  wish  for  milk  for 
some  years  and  then  to  turn  over  to  the  butcher. 
3 


26 


THE    JERSEYS. —  GENERAL    ESTIMATE. 


The  Jersey  cattle  have  now  become  widely  known 
in  this  country.  Many  of  them  have  been  imported 
from  an  island  of  the  same  name  in  the  British  Channel, 
near  the  coast  of  France,  and  they  may  now  be  con- 
sidered,  I  think,  as  fully  acclimated.  They  were  first 
introduced  over  thirty  years  ago,  from  the  channel 
islands  Alderney,  Guernsey,  and  Jersey. 


Fig.  3.    Jersey  Cow.* 

The  opinions  of  practical  men  differ  widely  as  to  the 
comparative  merits  of  this  race,  and  its  adaptation  to 
our  climate  and  to  the  wants  of  our  farmers.  The  most 
common  decision,  prevailing  among  many  even  of  the 
best  judges  of  stock,  appears  to  be,  that,  however  desir- 
able the  cows  may  be  on  the  lawn  or  in  a  gentleman's 
park,  they  are  wholly  unsuited  to  the  general  wants  of 
the  practical  farmer.  This  may  or  may  not  be  the  case. 
If  the  farmer  keeps  a  dairy  farm  and  sells  only  milk, 
the  quantity  and  not  the  quality  of  which  is  his  chief 
care,  he  can  satisfy  himself  better  with  some  other 
breed.     If  otherwise  situated, — if  he  devotes  his  time 

*  See  page  30 


raxton's   opinion. FORM.  27 

to  the  making  of  butter  for  the  supply  of  customers 
who  are  willing  to  pay  for  a  good  article, — he  may 
very  properly  consider  whether  a  few  Jerseys,  or  an 
infusion  of  Jersey  blood,  may  not  be  desirable.  Hax 
ton  calls  the  Jersey  cow  the  cheese  and  butter  dairy- 
man's friend  when  her  milk  is  diluted  with  that  of 
ten  or  a  dozen  ordinary  cows,  and  his  enemy  if  he 
should  attempt  to  make  either  cheese  or  butter  solely 
from  her  produce,  as,  from  the  excessive  richness  of  the 
milk,  neither  will  keep  long ;  and,  finally,  an  ornament 
to  the  rich  man's  lawn,  yet  in  aspect  altogether  devoid 
of  those  rounded  outlines  which  constitute  the  crite- 
rion of  animal  beauty. 

The  Jersey  race  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived 
originally  from  Normandy,  in  the  northern  part  of 
France.  The  cows  have  been  long  celebrated  for  the 
production  of  very  rich  milk  and  cream,  but  till  within 
a  quarter  of  a  century  they  were  comparatively  coarse, 
ugly,  and  ill-shaped.  Improvements  have  been  very 
marked,  but  the  form  of  the  animal  is  still  far  from 
satisfying  the  eye.  The  head  of  the  pure  Jersey  is 
fine  and  tapering,  the  cheek  small,  the  throat  clean, 
the  muzzle  fine  and  encircled  with  a  light  stripe,  the 
nostril  high  and  open  ;  the  horns  smooth,  crumpled,  not 
very  thick  at  the  base,  tapering,  and  tipped  with  black ; 
ears  small  and  thin,  deep  orange  color  inside ;  eyes  full 
and  placid ;  neck  straight  and  fine  ;  chest  broad  and 
deep ;  barrel  hooped,  broad  and  deep,  well  ribbed  up ; 
back  straight  from  the  withers  to  the  hip,  and  from  the 
top  of  the  hip  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail ;  tail  fine,  at 
right  angles  with  the  back,  and  hanging  down  to  the 
hocks ;  skin  thin,  light  color  and  mellow,  covered  with 
fine  soft  hair ;  fore  legs  short,  straight  and  fine  below 
the  knee,  arm  swelling  and  full  above ;  hind  quarters 
Long  and  well  filled ;  hind  legs  short  and  straight  below 


28  CHARACTERISTICS. —  BEAUTY. 

the  hocks,  with  bones  rather  fine,  squarely  placed,  and 
not  too  close  together ;  hoofs  small  ;  udder  full  in  size, 
in  line  with  the  belly,  extending  well  up  behind ;  teats 
of  mediuir  size,  squarely  placed  and  wide  apart,  and 
milk-veins  very  prominent.  The  color  is  generally 
cream,  dun,  or  yellow,  with  more  or  less  white,  and  the 
fine  head  and  neck  give  the  cows  and  heifers  a  fawn- 
like  appearance,  and  make  them  objects  of  attraction  in 
the  park ;  but  the  hind  quarters  are  often  too  narrow 
to  look  well,  particularly  to  those  who  judge  animals 
from  the  amount  of  fat  they  carry.  We  should  bear  in 
mind,  however,  that  a  good  race  of  animals  is  not 
always  the  most  beautiful,  as  that  term  is  commonly 
understood.  Beauty  in  stock  has  no  fixed  standard. 
In  the  estimation  of  some,  it  results  mainly  from  fine 
forms,  small  bones,  and  close,  compact  frames ;  while 
others  consider  that  structure  the  most  perfect,  and 
therefore  the  most  beautiful,  which  is  best  adapted  to 
the  use  to  which  it  is  destined.  According  to  the  lat- 
ter, beauty  is  relative.  It  is  not  the  same  in  an  animal 
designed  for  beef  and  in  one  designed  for  the  dairy  or 
for  work.  The  beauty  of  a  milch  cow  is  the  result  of 
her  good  qualities.  Large  milkers  are  very  rarely 
cows  that  please  the  eye  of  any  but  a  skilful  judge. 
They  are  generally  poor,  because  their  food  goes  mainly 
to  the  production  of  milk,  and  because  they  are  selected 
with  less  regard  to  form  than  to  good  milking  qual- 
ities. We  meet  with  good  milkers  of  all  forms,  from 
the  round,  close-built  Devon  to  the  coarsest-boned 
scrub ;  but,  with  all  their  varieties  of  form  and  struc- 
ture, good  cows  will  usually  possess  certain  points  of 
similarity  and  well-known  marks  by  which  they  are 
known  to  the  eyes  of  the  judge. 

It  is  asserted  by  Colonel  Le  Couteur,  of  the  island  of 
Jersey,  that,  contrary  to  the  general  opinion  here,  the 


JERSEYS. FATTENING. 


BULLS. 


29 


Jersey  cow,  when  old  and  no  longer  wanted  as  a  milker 
will,  when  dry  and  fed,  fatten  rapidly,  and  produce  a 
good  quantity  and  excellent  quality  of  butcher's  meat. 
An  old  cow,  he  says,  was  put  up  to  fatten  in  October, 
1850,  weighing  1125  pounds,  and  when  killed,  the  6th 
of  January,  1851,  she  weighed  1330  pounds ;  having 
gained  205  pounds  in  ninety-eight  days,  on  twenty 
pounds  of  hay,  a  little  wheat-straw,  and  thirty  pounds 
of  roots,  consisting  of  carrots,  Swedes,  and  mangold 
wurzel,  a  day.  The  prevailing  opinion  as  to  the  beauty 
of  the  Jersey  is  based  on  the  general  appearance  of  the 
cow  ill  milk,  no  experiments  in  feeding  exclusively  for 
beef  having  been  made,  to  my  knowledge,  and  no 
opportunity  to  form  a  correct  judgment  from  actual 
observation  having  been  furnished  ;  and  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  the  general  appearance  would  amply  justify 
the  hasty  conclusion. 


Fig.  4.    Jersey  Bull. 

The  bulls  are  usually  very  different  in  character  and 
disposition   from  the  cows,  and  are  much  inclined  to 
3* 


30  PLACE    FOR    THE    JERSEYS. 

become  restive  and  cross  at  the  age  of  two  or  three 
years,  unless  their  treatment  is  uniformly  gentle  and 
firm.  The  accompanying  figure  very  accurately  repre- 
sents one  of  the  best  animals  of  the  race  in  the  vicinity 
of  Boston,  which  has  been  pronounced  by  good  judges 
a  model  of  a  bull  for  a  dairy  breed. 

The  beautiful  Jersey  cow  "  Flirt,"  figured  on  page 
2G,  received  the  first  prize  at  the  Fair  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts State  Board  of  Agriculture  in  1857,  which 
brought  together  the  largest  and  finest  collection  of 
Jersey  cattle  ever  made  in  this  country.  She  is  well- 
shaped,  and  a  very  superior  dairy  cow.  Her  dam, 
Flora,  was  very  remarkable  for  the  richness  of  her  milk 
and  the  quantity  of  her  butter,  having  made  no  less 
than  five  hundred  and  eleven  pounds  in  one  year,  with- 
out extra  feeding. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  is  evident  that  the  Jer- 
sey is  to  be  regarded  as  a  dairy  breed,  and  that  almost 
exclusively.  It  is  evident,  too,  that  it  would  not  be 
sought  for  large  dairies  kept  for  the  supply  of  milk  to 
cities ;  for,  though  the  quality  would  gratify  the  cus- 
tomer, the  quantity  would  not  satisfy  the  owner.  The 
place  of  the  Jersey  cow  is  rather  in  private  establish- 
ments, where  the  supply  of  cream  and  butter  is  a  suffi- 
cient object,  or,  in  limited  numbers,  to  add  richness  to 
the  milk  of  large  butter  dairies.  Even  one  or  two  good 
Jersey  cows  with  a  herd  of  fifteen  or  twenty,  will  make 
a  great  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  milk  aad  butter 
of  the  whole  establishment;  and  they  would  piobabiy 
be  profitable  for  this,  if  fur  no  other  object. 

Other  breeds  are  somewhat  noted  in  Great  Britain 
for  their  excellent  dairy  qualities,  and  among  them 
might  be  named  the  Yorkshire  and  the  Kerry;  but  they 
have  never  been   introduced  into  this  country  to  any 


SHORT -HORNS. — ORIGIN. 


31 


extent ;  though  a  few  of  the  latter  were  imported  into 
Massachusetts  in  1859,  and  give  very  satisfactory  results. 


Fig.  5.    Improved  Short-horn     Duchess.    (64) 


The  Short-horns.  —  No  breed  of  horned  cattle  has 
commanded  more  universal  admiration  during  the  last 
half-century  than  the  improved  Short-horns,  whose  ori- 
gin can  be  traced  back  for  nearly  a  hundred  years. 
According  to  the  best  authorities,  the  stock  which 
formed  the  basis  of  improvement  existed  equally  in 
Yorkshire,  Lincolnshire,  Northumberland,  and  counties 
adjoining ;  and  the  preeminence  was  accorded  to  Dur- 
ham, which  gave  its  name  to  the  race,  from  the  more 
correct  principles  of  breeding  which  seem  to  have  pre- 
vailed there. 

There  is  a  dispute  among  the  most  eminent  breed- 
ers as  to  how  far  it  owTes  its  origin  to  early  importations 
from  Holland,  whence  many  superior  animals  were 
brought  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  old  long- 
horned  breed.  A  large  race  of  cattle  had  existed  for 
many  years  on  the  western  shores  of  the  continent  of 
Europe.     At  a  very  early  date,  as  early  as  1633,  they 


32  DUTCH.  —  HOLDER  NESS.  —  HUBBACK. 

were  imported  from  Denmark  into  New  England  in  con- 
siderable numbers,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  a 
valuable  stock  in  this  country.  They  extended  along 
the  coast,  it  is  said,  through  Holland  to  France.  The 
dairy  formed  a  prominent  branch  of  farming  at  a  very 
early  date  in  Holland,  and  experience  led  to  the  great- 
est care  in  the  choice  and  breeding  of  dairy  stock. 
From  these  cattle  many  selections  were  made  to  cross 
over  to  the  counties  of  York  and  Durham.  The  pre- 
vailing color  of  the  large  Dutch  cattle  was  black  and 
white,  beautifully  contrasted. 

The  cattle  produced  by  these  crosses  a  century  ago 
were  known  under  the  name  of  u  Dutch."  The  cows 
selected  for  crossing  with  the  early  imported  Dutch 
bulls  were  generally  long-horned,  large-boned,  coarse 
animals,  a  fair  type  of  which  was  found  in  the  old  "  Hold- 
erness"  breed  of  Yorkshire,  —  slow  feeders,  strong  in 
the  shoulder,  defective  in  the  fore  quarter,  and  not  very 
profitable  for  the  butcher,  their  meat  being  "  coarse  to 
the  palate  and  uninviting  to  the  eye.'7  Their  milking 
qualities  were  good,  surpassing,  probably,  those  of  the 
improved  short-horns.  Whatever  may  be  the  truth  with 
regard  to  these  crosses,  and  however  far  they  proved 
effective  in  creating  or  laying  the  foundation  of  the 
modern  improved  short-horns,  the  results  of  the  efforts 
made  in  Yorkshire  and  some  of  the  adjoining  counties 
were  never  so  satisfactory  to  the  best  judges  as  those 
of  the  breeders  along  the  Tees,  who  selected  animals 
with  greater  reference  to  fineness  of  bone  and  symme- 
try of  form,  and  the  animals  they  bred  soon  took  the 
lead,  and  excited  great  emulation  in  improvement. 

The  famous  bull  "Hubback,"  bred  by  Mr.  Turner,  of 
Hurworth,  and  subsequently  owned  by  Mr.  Colling, 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  celebrity  of  the  short-horns, 
and  it  is  the  pride  of  short-horn  breeders  to  trace  back 


COMET.  —  BREEDERS     OF    SHORT-HORNS.  33 

to  him.  He  was  calved  in  1777,  and  his  descendants, 
Foljambe,  Bolingbroke,  Favorite,  and  Comet,  perma- 
nently fixed  the  characteristics  of  the  breed.  Comet 
was  so  highly  esteemed  among  breeders,  that  he  sold 
at  one  thousand  guineas,  or  over  five  thousand  dollars. 
Hubback  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been  a  pure  short- 
horn, and  by  others  a  grade  or  mixture. 

Many  breeders  had  labored  long  previous  to  the 
brothers  Charles  and  Robert  Colling,  especially  on  the 
old  Teeswater  short-horns  ;  yet  a  large  share  of  the 
credit  of  improving  and  establishing  the  reputation  of 
the  improved  short-horns  is  generally  accorded  to  the 
Collings.  Certain  it  is  that  the  spirit  and  discrimination 
with  which  they  selected  and  bred  soon  became  known, 
and  a  general  interest  was  awakened  in  the  breed  at 
the  time  of  the  sale  of  Charles  Colling's  herd,  October 
11,  1810.  It  was  then  that  Mr.  Bates,  of  Kirkleaving- 
ton,  purchased  the  celebrated  heifer  Duchess  I.,  whose 
family  sold,  in  1850,  after  his  decease,  at  an  average  of 
one  hundred  and  sixteen  pounds  five  shillings  per  head, 
including  young  calves.  Many  representatives  of  the 
Duchess  family,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  Mr.  Bates' 
success  as  a  breeder,  have  been  brought  to  this  country. 
They  may,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as  an  exception  to  the 
modern  improved  short-horns,  their  milking  qualities 
being  generally  very  superior. 

The  sale  referred  to,  and  those  of  R.  Colling's  herd, 
in  1818,  and  that  of  Lord  Spencer,  in  1846,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  Kirkleavington  herd,  in  1850,  and  especially  that 
of  the  herd  of  Lord  Ducie,  two  years  later,  are  marked 
eras  in  the  history  of  improved  short-horns ;  and 
through  these  sales,  and  the  universal  enthusiasm  awak- 
ened by  them,  the  short-horns  have  become  more  widely 
spread  over  Great  Britain,  and  more  generally  fashion- 
able, than  any  other  breed.    They  have  also  been  largely 

3 


34 


CREAMPOTS.  —  CCELEBS.  —  DENTON. 


introduced  into  France  by  the  government,  for  the 
improvement  of  the  various  French  breeds  by  crossing, 
and  into  nearly  every  quarter  of  the  civilized  world. 


Fig.  6.     Short -horn  Bull  "  Double  Duke,"  (14511  Am.  H.  Book.) 
Owned  by  Harvest  Club,  Springfield. 

Importations  have  been  frequent  and  extensive  into 
the  United  States  within  the  last  few  years,  and  this 
famous  breed  is  now  pretty  generally  diffused  over  the 
country. 

The  use  of  the  early-imported  short-horn  bulls  and 
•native  cows  led  to  the  formation  of  many  families  of 
grades,  some  of  them  bred  back  to  the  sire,  and  others 
crossed  high  up,  which  have  attained  a  very  consider- 
able local  reputation  in  many  sections.  As  instances 
of  this,  may  be  mentioned  the  Creampot  stock,  obtained 
by  Col.  Jaques  from  a  short-horn  bull,  Ccelebs,  and 
a  superior  native  cow.  A  family  of  fine  milkers  still 
exists  in  Massachusetts,  known  by  the  name  of  the 
u  Sukey  breed,"  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from 
"  Denton/''  a  ver}7  superior  animal  imported  by  Mr.  Wil- 
liams, of  Northboro',  some  forty  years  age.  Many  of 
the  best  milkers  of  that  section  can  be  traced  back  to 


EVILS    OF    OVERFEEDING.  35 

him.  The  Patton  stock,  originally  imported  into  Mary- 
land and  Virginia,  in  1783,  and  thence  to  Kentucky, 
may  be  classed  in  the  same  category.  A  part  of  these 
were  at  first  known  as  the  "  milk  breed,"  and  others  as 
the  "beef  breed:"  the  first  short-horns,  at  that  time 
good  milkers,  and  the  latter  long-horns,  of  large  size 
and  coarse  in  the  bone.  In  Kentucky  they  were  all 
known  as  the  Patton  stock. 

The  high-bred  short-horn  is  easily  prepared  for  a 
show,  and,  as  fat  will  cover  faults,  the  temptation  is 
often  too  great  to  be  resisted ;  and  hence  it  is  common 
to  see  the  finest  animals  rendered  unfit  for  breeding 
purposes  by  over-feeding.  The  race  is  susceptible  of 
breeding  for  the  production  of  milk,  as  several  families 
show,  and  great  milkers  have  often  been  known  among 
pure-bred  animals  ;  but  it  is  more  common  to  find  it 
bred  mainly  for  the  butcher,  and  kept  accordingly.  It 
is,  however,  a  well-known  fact  that  the  dairies  of  Lon- 
don are  stocked  chiefly  with  short-horns  and  York- 
shires, or  high  grades  between  them,  which,  after  being 
milked  as  long  as  profitable,  feed  equal,,  or  nearly  so, 
to  pure-bred  short-horns. 

It  has  been  said,  by  very  high  authority,  that  "  the 
short-horns  improve  every  breed  they  cross  with." 

The  desirable  characteristics  of  the  short-horn  bull 
may  be  summed  up,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the 
best  breeders,  as  follows:  He  should  have  a  short  but 
fine  head,  very  broad  across  the  eyes,  tapering  to  Uic 
nose,  with  a  nostril  full  and  prominent;  the  nose  itself 
should  be  of  a  rich  flesh-color ;  eyes  bright  and  mild ; 
ears  somewhat  large  and  thin ;  horns  slightly  curved 
and  rather  flat,  well  set  on  a  long,  broad,  muscular 
neck;  chest  wide,  deep, and  projecting;  shoulders  fine, 
oblique,  well  formed  into  the  chine;  fore  legs  short 
with  upper  arm  large  and  powerful ;  barrel  round,  deep. 


36  EARLY    MATURITY.  —  QUALITY 

well  ribbed  home ;  hips  wide  and  level ;  back  straight 
from  the  withers  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail,  but  short 
from  hip  to  chine ;  skin  soft  and  velvety  to  the  touch  : 
moderately  thick  hair,  plentiful,  soft,  and  mossy.  The 
cow  has  the  same  points  in  the  main,  but  her  head  is 
finer,  longer,  and  more  tapering,  neck  thinner  and 
lighter,  and  shoulders  more  narrow  across  the  chine. 

The  astonishing  precocity  of  the  short-horns,  their 
remarkable  aptitude  to  fatten,  the  perfection  of  their 
forms,  and  the  fineness  of  their  bony  structure,  give 
them  an  advantage  over  most  other  races  when  the 
object  of  breeding  is  for  the  shambles.  No  animal  of 
any  other  breed  can  so  rapidly  transform  the  stock  of 
any  section  around  him  as  the  improved  short-horn  bull. 

But  it  does  not  follow  that  the  high-bred  short-horns 
are  unexceptionable  even  for  beef.  The  very  exag- 
geration, so  to  speak,  of  the  qualities  which  make  them 
so  valuable  for  the  improvement  of  other  and  less  per- 
fect races,  may  become  a  fault  when  wanted  for  the 
table.  The  very  rapidity  with  which  they  increase  in 
size  is  thought  by  some  to  prevent  their  meat  from 
ripening  up  sufficiently  before  being  hurried  off  to  the 
butcher.  The  disproportion  of  the  fatty  to  the  mus- 
cular flesh,  found  in  this  to  a  greater  extent  than  in 
races  coming  slower  to  maturity,  makes  the  meat  of  the 
thorough-bred  short-horn,  in  the  estimation  of  some, 
both  less  agreeable  to  the  taste  and  less  profitable  to 
the  consumer,  since  the  nitrogenous  compounds,  true 
sources  of  nutriment,  are  found  in  less  quantity  than  in 
the  meat  of  animals  not  so  highly  bred. 

But  the  improved  short-horn  is  justly  unrivalled  for 
symmetry  of  form  and  beauty.  I  have  never  seen  a 
picture  or  an  engraving  of  an  animal  which  gave  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  beauty  of  many  specimens  of  this 
race,  especially  of  the  best  bred  in  Kentucky  and  Ohio. 


SYMMETRY. —  THE  DUTCH  RACE. 


37 


where  many  excellent  breeders,  favored  by  a  climate 
and  pastures  eminently  adapted  to  bring  the  short-horn 
to  perfection,  have  not  only  imported  extensively  from 
the  best  herds  in  England,  but  have  themselves  attained 
a  degree  of  knowledge  and  skill  equalled  only  by  that 
of  the  most  celebrated  breeders  in  the  native  country 
of  this  improved  race. 

In  sections  where  the  climate  is  moist  and  the  food 
abundant  and  rich,  some  families  of  the  short-horns  may 
be  valuable  for  the  dairy ;  but  they  are  most  frequently 
bred  exclusively  for  beef  in  this  country,  and  in  sec- 
tions where  they  have  attained  the  highest  perfection 
of  form  and  beauty  so  little  is  thought  of  their  milking 
qualities  that  they  are  often  not  milked  at  all,  the  calf 
being  allowed  to  run  with  the  dam. 


Fig.  7.     Imported  Dutch  Cow. 

The  Dutch  is  a  short-horned  race  of  cattle,  which,  in 
the  opinion  of  many,  as  I  have  already  remarked,  con- 
tributed largely,  about  a  century  ago,  to  build  up  the 
Durham  or  Teeswater  stock.     It  has  been   bred  with 
4 


38 


THE    DUTCH     RACE. 


special   reference  to  dairy  qualities,  and  is  eminently 
adapted  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  dairy  farmer. 

The  cow,  Fig.  7,  was  bred  in  North  Holland,  and  im- 
ported by  Winthrop  W.  Chenery,  Esq.,  of  Watertown, 


Fig.  8.    Imported  Dutch  Bull. 

in  1857.  The  bull,  Fig.  8,  was  also  imported  by  Mr. 
Chenery  at  the  same  time,  from  near  the  Beemster,  in  the 
northerly  part  of  Purmerend.  Both  animals  are  truth- 
fully delineated,  and  give  a  correct  idea  of  the  points 
of  the  North  Dutch  cattle.  For  a  more  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  this  celebrated  dairy  race,  see  pages  51  and  301. 
Herefords.  —  The  Hereford  cattle  derive  their  name 
Irom  a  county  in  the  western  part  of  England.  Their 
general  characteristics  are  a  white  face,  sometimes  mot- 
tled ;  white  throat,  the  white  generally  extending  back 
on  the  neck,  and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  still  further 
along  on  the  back.  The  color  of  the  rest  of  the  body 
is  red,  generally  dark,  but  sometimes  light.  Eighty 
years  ago  the  best  Hereford  cattle  were  mottled  or 
roan  all  over ;  and  some  of  the  best  herds,  down  to  a 


THE     HEREFORDS.  —  THEIR    POINTS. 


39 


comparatively  recent  period,  were  either  all  mottled, 
or  had  the  mottled  or  speckled  face.     The  expression 


Fig.  9.     Hereford  Cow. 


of  the  face  is  mild  and  lively;  the  forehead  open,  broad, 
and  large  ;  the  eyes  bright  and  full  of  vivacity ;  the 
horns  glossy,  slender,  and  spreading ;  the  head  small 
though  larger  and  not  quite  so  clean  as  that  of  the 
Devons;  the  lower  jaw  fine;  neck  long  and  slender; 
chest  deep;  breast-bone  large,  prominent,  and  very 
muscular ;  the  shoulder-blade  light ;  shoulder  full  and 
soft ;  brisket  and  loins  large  ;  hips  well  developed,  and 
on  a  level  with  the  chine ;  hind  quarters  long  and  well 
filled  in  ;  buttocks  on  a  level  with  the  back,  neither 
falling  off  nor  raised  above  the  hind  quarters  ;  tail  slen- 
der, well  set  on  ;  hair  fine  and  soft ;  body  round  and 
full  ;  carcass  deep  and  well  formed,  or  cylindrical ;  bone 
small;  thigh  short  and  well  made;  legs  short  and  straight, 
and  slender  below  the  knee  ;  as  handlers  very  excel- 
lent, especially  mellow  to  the  touch  on  the  back,  the 
shoulder,  and  along  the  sides,  the  skin  being  soft,  flex- 
ible, of  medium  thickness,  rolling  on  the  neck  and  the 


40  CHARACTERISTICS. — TOMKINS. 

hips  ;  hair  bright ;  face  almost  bare,  which  is  character- 
istic of  pure-bred  Herefords.  They  belong  to  the 
middle-horned  division  of  the  cattle  of  Great  Britain, 
to  which  they  are  indigenous.  They  have  been  im- 
proved within  the  last  century  by  careful  selections, 
the  first  step  to  this  end  having  been  taken  by  Benja- 
min Tomkins,  of  Herefordshire,  who  began  about  1766; 
with  two  cows  possessing  a  remarkable  tendency  to 
take  on  fat.  One  of  these  was  gray,  and  the  other 
dark  red,  with  a  mottled  or  spotted  face. 

Taking  these  as  a  foundation,  Mr.  Tomkins  went  on 
to  build  up  a  large  herd,  from  which  he  sold  to 
other  breeders,  from  time  to  time,  till  at  his  decease,  in 
1819,  the  whole  herd  was  disposed  of  at  auction  —  fifty 
two  animals,  including  twenty-two  steers  and  two  heif- 
ers, varying  in  age  from  calves  to  two-year-olds,  bring- 
ing an  aggregate  of  four  thousand  six  hundred  and 
seventy-three  pounds,  fourteen  shillings,  or  four  hun- 
dred and  forty-five  dollars,  thirty-seven  and  a  half  cents, 
a  head.  A  bull  was  sold  to  Lord  Talbot  for  five  hun- 
dred and  eighty-eight  pounds,  while  several  cows 
brought  from  a  thousand  to  twelve  hundred  dollars  a 
head. 

Hereford  oxen  are  excellent  animals,  less  active  but 
stronger  than  the  Devons,  and  very  free  and  docile. 
The  demand  for  Herefords  for  beef  prevents  their  being- 
much  used  for  work  in  their  native  county,  and  the 
farmers  there  generally  use  horses  instead  of  oxen.  A 
recent  writer  in  the  Farmer's  Magazine  makes  the  fol- 
lowing remarks  on  this  head :  "  It  is  allowed  on  all 
hands,  I  believe,  that  the  properties  in  which  Herefords 
stand  preeminent  among  the  middle-sized  breeds  are  in 
the  production  of  oxen  and  their  superiority  of  flesh. 
On  these  points  there  is  little  chance  of  their  being 
excelled.     It  should,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that 


HEREFORD    OXEN. 


41 


the  best  oxen  are  not  produced  from  the  largest  cows ; 
nor  is  a  superior  quality  of  flesh,  such  as  is  considered 


Fig.  10.     Hereford  Bull. 


very  soft  to  the  touch,  with  thin  skin.  It  is  the  union 
of  these  two  qualities  which  often  characterizes  the 
short-horns  ;  but  the  Hereford  breeders  should  endeavor 
to  maintain  a  higher  standard  of  excellence,  —  that  for 
which  the  best  of  the  breed  have  always  been  esteemed, 
—  a  moderately  thick,  mellow  hide,  with  a  well-appor- 
tioned combination  of  softness  with  elasticity.  A  suffi- 
ciency of  hair  is  also  desirable,  and  if  accompanied  with 
a  disposition  to  curl  moderately  it  is  more  in  esteem ; 
but  that  which  has  a  harsh  and  wiry  feel  is  objection- 
able." 

In  point  of  symmetry  and  beauty  of  form,  the  well- 
bred  Herefords  maybe  classed  with  the  improved  short- 
horns, though  they  arrive  somewhat  slower  at  maturity, 
and  never  attain  such  weight.  Like  the  improved  short- 
horns, they  are  chiefly  bred  for  beef,  and  their  beef  is 
of  the  best  quality  in  the  English  markets,  command- 
ing the  highest  price  of  any,  except,  perhaps,  the  West 
Highlanders. 

4* 


12  COMPARED    WITH     SHORT-HORNS. 

In  an  experiment  carefully  tried  in  1828,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  arriving  at  the  comparative  economy  of  the 
short-horns  and  Herefords,  the  latter  gained  less  by 
nearly  one  fourth  than  the  former,  which*  had  consumed 
more  food.  The  six  animals,  three  of  each  breed,  were 
sold  after  being  fed,  in  Smithfield  market,  the  Hereford* 
bringing  less  by  only  about  five  dollars  than  the  short- 
horns, while  the  cost  of  food  consumed  by  the  latter 
was  greater,  and  the  original  purchase  greater  than  that 
of  the  former. 

The  short-horn  produces  more  beef  at  the  same  age 
than  the  Hereford,  but  consumes  more  food  in  propor- 
tion. "  In  all  the  fairs  of  England,"  says  Hillyard,  "  ex- 
cept those  of  Herefordshire  and  the  adjoining  counties, 
short-horn  heifers  are  more  sought  after  and  sell  at 
higher  prices  than  the  Hereford ;  but  it  is  not  so  with 
fat  cattle,  for,  with  the  exception  of  Lincolnshire  and 
some  of  the  northern  counties,  they  much  prefer  the 
Herefords.  Then  at  Smithfield,  where  the  quality  of 
the  beef  passes  its  final  judgment,  the  pound  of  Here- 
ford beef  pays  better  than  the  pound  of  short-horn  beef. 
Short-horn  beeves  produce  at  the  same  age  a  greater 
weight,  it  is  true,  but  they  also  consume  more  food.  I 
can  easily  conceive  why,  in  the  magnificent  pastures  of 
Lincolnshire,  and  some  of  the  northern  counties  of 
England,  they  may  prefer  the  short-horns;  and  that  is. 
that  they  may  keep  a  less  number  on  a  given  quantity 
of  land,  and  only  the  short-horn  could,  under  these  con- 
ditions, produce  a  greater  weight  of  beef  per  acre.  It 
is  very  difficult  to  decide  which  of  the  two  races  in 
England  (the  two  best  in  the  world)  is  the  most  profit- 
able for  stock-raisers  and  for  the  community."  There 
are,  even  in  Lincolnshire,  many  good  feeders  who  pre- 
fer the  Herefords  to  the  short-horns.  One  of  these, 
when  visited  the  past  season,  had  thirty  head  of  cattle 


A  farmer's    opinion.  4? 

feeding  for  the  butcher,  and  only  one  short-horn.  When 
asked  the  reason  of  this,  he  replied,  "I  am  a  farmer 
myself,  and  have  to  pay  high  rent,  and  I  must  feed 
the  cattle  that  pay  me  best.  Perhaps  you  think  it 
would  be  more  in  fashion  to  cover  my  fields  with  short- 
horns ;  but  I  must  look  to  the  net  profit,  and  I  get  much 
better  with  the  Herefords.  The  short-horns  are  too  full 
of  fat  and  make  too  little  tallow,  and  they  consequently 
sell  too  low  in  the  Smithfield  market.  Our  Herefords 
are  better,  and  they  sell  better." 

The  Herefords  are  far  less  generally  spread  over 
England  than  the  improved  short-horns.  They  have 
seldom  been  bred  for  milk,  as  some  families  of  the 
short-horns  have ;  and  it  is  not  very  unusual  to  find 
pure-bred  cows  incapable  of  supplying  milk  sufficient 
to  nourish  their  calves.  This  system  was  pursued  es- 
pecially by  Mr.  Price,  a  skilful  Hereford  breeder,  who 
sacrified  everything  to  form,  disregarding  milking  prop- 
erties, breeding  often  from  near  relations,  and  thus  fix- 
ing the  fault  incident  to  his  system  more  or  less  perma- 
nently in  the  descendants  of  his  stock. 

The  Herefords  have  been  brought  to  this  country,  to 
some  extent,  and  several  fine  herds  exist  in  different 
sections  ;  the  earliest  importations  being  those  of  Henry 
Clay,  of  Kentucky,  in  1817.  The  figures  of  the  two 
animals  of  this  breed  presented  in  this  connection  rep- 
resent a  bull  and  cow  bred  at  the  State  Farm,  in  Massa- 
chusetts, and  are  good  specimens  of  the  breed. 

The  want  of  care  and  attention  to  the  udder,  soon 
after  calving,  especially  if  the  cow  be  on  luxuriant 
grass,  often  injures  her  milking  properties  exceedingly. 
The  practice  in  the  county  of  Hereford  has  generally 
been  to  let  the  calves  suckle  from  four  to  six  months, 
and  bull-calves  often  run  eight  months  with  the  cow. 
But  their  dairy  qualities  are  perhaps  as  good  as  those 


41 


THE     NORTH     DEVON'S, 


of  any  cattle  whose  fattening  properties  have  been  so 
carefully  developed;  and,  though  it  is  probable  that 
they  could  be  bred  for  milk  by  proper  care  and  atten- 
tion, yet,  as  this  change  would  be  at  the  sacrifice  of 
other  qualities  equally  valuable,  it  would  evidently  be 
wiser  to  resort  to  other  stock  for  the  dairv. 


Fig.  11      Devon  Cow, 
Owced  by  William  Buckniinster  Esq.,  Framingham  Man. 

The  North  Devoxs.  —  The  last  of  the  pure-bred  races 
which  it  will  be  necessary  to  describe  as  prominent 
among  our  American  cattle  is  the  Devon,  a  middle- 
horned  breed,  now  very  generally  distributed  in  some 
sections  of  the  country. 

This  beautiful  race  of  cattle  dates  further  back  than 
any  well-established  breed  among  us.  It  goes  gener 
ally  under  the  simple  name  of  Devon;  but  the  cattle  of 
the  southern  part  of  the  county,  from  which  the  race 
derives  its  name,  differ  somewhat  from  those  of  the 
northern,  having  a  larger  and  coarser  frame,  and  far 
less  tendency  to  fatten,  though  their  dairy  qualities  are 
superior. 


CHARACTERISTICS. WORKING     CATTLE.         45 

The  North  Devcms  are  remarkable  for  hardihood,  sym- 
metry, and  beauty,  and  are  generally  bred  for  work  and  for 
beef  rather  than  for  the  dairy.  The  head  is  fine  and  well 
set  on;  the  horns  of  medium  length,  generally  curved; 
color  usually  bright  blood-red,  but  sometimes  inclining 
to  yellow  ;  skin  thin  and  orange-yellow  ;  hair  of  medium 
length,  soft  and  silky,  making  the  animals  remarkable  as 
handlers  ;  muzzle  of  the  nose  white  ;  eyes  full  and  mild  ; 
ears  yellowish,  or  orange-color  inside,  of  moderate  size  ; 
neck  rather  long,  with  little  dewlap  ;  shoulders  oblique  ; 
legs  small  and  straight,  and  feet  in  proportion ;  chest  of 
good  width ;  ribs  round  and  expanded  ;  loins  of  first-rate 
quality,  long,  wide,  and  fleshy ;  hips  round,  of  medium 
width ;  rump  level ;  tail  full  near  the  setting  on,  taper- 
ing to  the  tip;  thighs  of  the  bull  and  ox  muscular  and 
full,  and  high  in  the  flank,  though  in  the  cow  sometimes 
thought  to  be  too  light ;  the  size  medium,  generally 
called  small.  The  proportion  of  meat  on  the  valuable 
parts  is  greater,  and  the  offal  less,  than  on  most  other 
breeds,  while  it  is  well  settled  that  they  consume  less 
food  in  its  production.  The  Devons  are  popular  with 
the  Smithfield  butchers,  and  their  beef  is  well  marbled 
or  grained. 

As  working  oxen,  the  Devons  perhaps  excel  all  other 
races  in  quickness,  docility,  and  beauty,  and  the  ease 
with  which  they  are  matched.  With  a  reasonable  load, 
they  are  said  to  be  equal  to  horses  as  walkers  on  the 
road,  and  when  they  are  no  longer  wanted  for  work 
they  fatten  easily  and  turn  well. 

As  milkers,  they  do  not  excel,  perhaps  they  may  be 
said  not  to  equal,  the  other  breeds,  and  they  have  a 
reputation  of  being  decidedly  below  the  average.  In 
their  native  country  the  general  average  of  a  dairy  is 
one  pound  of  butter  per  day  during  the  summer. 

They  are  bred  for  beef  and  for  work,  and  not  for  the 


46 


THE     PATTERSON     HERD. 


dairy;  and  their  yield  of  milk  is  small,  though  of  a  rich 
quality.  I  have,  however,  had  occasion  to  examine 
several  animals  from  the  celebrated  Patterson  herd, 
which  would  have  been  remarkable  as  milkers  even 
among  good  milking  stock.  They  had  not,  to  be  sure, 
the  beautiful  symmetry  of  form  and  fineness  of  bone 
which  characterize  most  of  the  modern  and  highly  im- 
proved pure-bred  North  Devons,  and  had  evidently 
been  bred  for  many  years  with  special  reference  to  the 
development  of  the  milking  qualities,  great  care  hav- 
ing been  taken  to  use  bulls  and  cows  as  breeders  from 
the  best  milking  stock,  rather  than  of  the  finest  forms. 
The  use  of  bulls  distinguished  only  for  symmetry  of 
form,  and  of  a  race  deficient  in  milk-secreting  quali- 
ties, will  be  sure  to  deteriorate,  instead  of  improving, 
the  stock  for  the  dairy. 


Fig.  12.    Devon  Bull. 

On  the  whole,  whatever  may  be  our  judgment  of  thi* 
breed,  the  faults  of  the  North  Devon  cow  can  hardly 
be  overlooked  from  our  present  point  of  view.  The 
rotundity  of  form  and  compactness  of  frame,  though 
they  contribute  to  her  remarkable  beauty,  constitute  an 


TOUATT'S     OPINION.  —  A     FAIR    TEST.  47 

objection  to  her  as  a  dairy  cow,  since  it  is  generally 
thought  that  the  peculiarity  of  form  which  disposes  an* 
animal  to  take  on  fat  is  somewhat  incompatible  with 
good  milking  qualities,  and  hence  Youatt  says :  "  For 
the  dairy  the  North  Devons  must  be  acknowledged  to  be 
inferior  to  several  other  breeds.  The  milk  is  good,  and 
yields  more  than  the  average  proportion  of  cream  and 
butter ;  but  it  is  deficient  in  quantity."  He  also  main- 
tains that  its  property  as  a  milker  could  not  be  im- 
proved without  probable  or  certain  detriment  to  its 
grazing  qualities. 

But  the  fairest  test  of  its  fitness  for  the  dairy  is  to  be 
found  in  the  estimation  in  which  distinguished  Devon 
breeders  themselves  have  held  it  in  this  respect.  A 
scale  of  points  of  excellence  in  this  breed  Avas  estab- 
lished, some  time  ago,  by  the  best  judges  in  England  ; 
and  it  has  since  been  adopted,  with  but  slight  changes,  in 
this  country.  These  judges,  naturally  prejudiced  in 
favor  of  the  breed,  if  prejudiced  at  all,  made  this  scale 
to  embrace  one  hundred  points,  no  animal  to  be  re- 
garded as  perfect  unless  it  excelled  in  all  of  them. 
Each  part  of  the  body  was  assigned  its  real  value 
in  the  scale  :  a  faultless  head,  for  instance,  was  esti- 
mated at  four  ;  a  deep,  round  chest,  at  fifteen,  &c. 
If  the  animal  was  defective  in  any  part,  the  number  of 
points  which  represented  the  value  of  that  part  in  the 
scale  was  to  be  deducted  pro  rata  from  the  hundred,  in 
determining  its  merits.  But  in  this  scale  the  cow  is  so 
lightly  esteemed  for  the  dairy,  that  the  udder,  the  size 
and  shape  of  which  is  of  the  utmost  consequence  in 
determining  the  capacity  of  the  milch  cow,  is  set  dowm 
as  worth  only  one  point,  while,  in  the  same  scale,  the 
horns  and  ears  are  valued  at  two  points  each,  and  the 
color  of  the  nose,  and  the  expression  of  the  eye,  are 
valued  at  four  points  each.     Supposing,  therefore,  that 


48  ESTIMATION    OF   THE    UDDER. 

each  of  these  points  were  valued  at  one  dollar,  and  a 
perfect  North  Devon  cow  was  valued  at  one  hundred 
dollars  ;  then  another  cow  of  the  same  blood,  and  equal 
to  the  first  in  every  respect  except  in  her  udder,  which 
is  such  as  to  make  it  certain  that  she  can  never  be 
capable  of  giving  milk  enough  to  nourish  her  calf,  must 
be  worth,  according  to  the  estimation  of  the  best  Devon 
breeders,  ninety-nine  dollars  !  It  is  safe,  therefore,  to 
say  that  an  animal  whose  udder  and  lacteal  glands  are 
regarded,  by  those  who  best  know  her  capacities  and 
her  merits,  as  of  only  one  quarter  part  as  much  conse- 
quence as  the  color  of  her  nose,  or  half  as  much  as  the 
shape  and  size  of  her  horns,  cannot  be  recommended 
for  the  dairy.  The  improved  North  Devon  cow  may 
be  classed,  in  this  respect,  with  the  Hereford,  neither 
of  which  has  well-developed  milk-vessels  —  a  poinl  of 
the  utmost  consequence  to  the  practical  dairyman. 

The  list  of  pure-bred  races  in  America  may  be  said 
to  end  here  ;  for,  though  other  and  well-established 
breeds,  like  the  long-horns,  the  Galloways,  the  Spanish, 
<fec,  have,  at  times,  been  imported,  and  have  had  some 
influence  on  our  American  stock,  they  have  not  been 
kept  distinct  to  such  an  extent  as  to  have  become  the 
prevailing  stock  of  any  particular  section,  so  far  as  I 
am  aware,  and  hence  a  notice  of  them  properly  comes 
in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER    II. 

AMERICAN   GRADE   OR   NATIVE    CATTLE. — THE  PRIN- 
CIPLES   OF    BREEDING. 

We  have  dwelt  thus  far  mainly  upon  the  prominent 
breeds  of  cattle  known  among  us,  and  especially  those 
adapted  to  the  dairy.  But  a  large  proportion  —  by  far 
the  largest  proportion,  indeed  —  cannot  be  included 
under  any  of  the  races  alluded  to. 

The  term  breed,  properly  understood,  applies  only  to 
animals  of  the  same  species,  possessing,  besides  the  gen- 
eral characteristics  of  that  species,  other  characteristics 
peculiar  to  themselves,  which  they  owe  to  the  influence 
of  soil,  climate,  nourishment,  and  habits  of  life  to  which 
they  are  subjected,  and  which  they  transmit  with  cer- 
tainty to  their  progeny.  The  characteristics  of  certain 
breeds  or  families  are  so  well  marked,  that  if  an  individ- 
ual supposed  to  belong  to  any  one  of  them  were  to  pro- 
duce an  offspring  not  possessing  them,  or  possessing 
them  only  in  part,  with  others  not  belonging  to  the 
breed,  it  would  be  just  ground  for  suspecting  a  want 
of  purity  of  blood. 

If  this  definition  of  the  term  breed  be  correct,  no 
grade  animals,  and  no  animals  not  possessing  fixed  pecu- 
liarities or  characteristics  which  they  share  with  all 
other  animals  of  the  class  of  which  they  are  a  type,  and 
which  they  are  capable  of  transmitting  with  certainty 
to  their  descendants,  can  be  recognized  by  breeders  as 
belonging  to  any  one  distinct  race,  breed,  or  family. 
5  4 


50  "natives"'    or  GRADES.  —  ORIGIN. 

The  term  "  native,"  or  "  scrub,"  is  applied  to  a  vast 
majority  of  our  American  cattle,  which,  though  born  on 
the  soil,  and  thus  in  one  sense  natives,  do  not  constitute 
a  breed,  race,  or  family,  as  properly  understood  by 
breeders.  They  do  not  possess  characteristics  peculiar 
to  them  all,  which  they  transmit  with  any  certainty  to 
their  offspring,  either  of  form,  size,  color,  milking  or 
working  properties.  But,  though  an  animal  may  be 
made  up  of  a  mixture  of  blood  almost  to  infinity,  it  does 
not  follow  that,  for  specific  purposes,  it  may  not,  as  an 
individual  animal,  be  one  of  the  best  of  the  species. 
And  for  particular  purposes  individual  animals  might 
be  selected  from  among  those  commonly  called  natives 
in  New  England,  and  scrubs  at  the  West  and  South, 
equal,  and  perhaps  superior,  to  any  among  the  races 
produced  by  the  most  skilful  breeding.  There  can  be 
no  impropriety  in  the  use  of  the  term  "  native,"  there- 
fore, when  it  is  understood  as  descriptive  of  no  known 
breed,  but  only  as  applied  to  the  common  stock  of  the 
country,  which  does  not  constitute  a  breed.  But  per- 
haps the  whole  class  of  animals  commonly  called  "  na- 
tives "  would  be  better  described  as  grades,  since  they 
are  well  known  to  have  sprung  from  a  great  variety  of 
cattle  procured  in  different  places  and  at  different  times 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  England,  and  in  the 
: Spanish  West  Indies,  brought  together  without  any 
regard  to  fixed  principles  of  breeding,  but  only  from 
individual  convenience,  and  by  accident. 

The  first  importations  to  this  country  were  doubtless 
those  taken  to  Virginia  previous  to  1609,  though  the 
exact  date  of  their  arrival  is  not  known.  Several  cows 
were  carried  there  from  the  West  Indies  in  1610,  and 
the  next  year  no  less  than  one  hundred  arrived  there 
from  abroad. 

The  earliest  cattle  imported  into  the  Plymouth  col 


EARLY  IMPORTATIONS.  —  DUTCH.       51 

ony,  and  undoubtedly  the  earliest  introduced  into  New 
England,  arrived  in  1624.  At  the  division  of  cattle 
which  took  place  in  1627,  three  years  after,  one  or  two 
are  distinctly  described  as  black,  or  black  and  white, 
others  as  brindle,  showing  that  there  was  no  uniformity 
of  color.  Soon  after  this,  a  large  number  of  cattle  were 
brought  over  from  England  for  the  settlers  at  Salem. 
These  importations  formed  the  original  stock  of  Massa- 
chusetts. 

In  1625  the  first  importation  was  made  into  New 
York  from  Holland,  by  the  Dutch  West  India  Company, 
and  the  foundation  was  then  laid  for  an  exceedingly 
valuable  race  of  animals,  which  subsequent  importations 
from  the  same  country,  as  well  as  from  England,  have 
greatly  improved. 

Dairy  farming  in  some  parts  of  Holland,  it  may  be 
remarked  in  passing,  became  a  highly  important  branch 
of  industry  at  a  very  early  date,  and  a  large  and 
valuable  race  of  dairy  cattle  existed  there  long  before 
the  efforts  of  modern  breeders  began  in  England. 
The  attention  of  farmers  there  is  at  the  present  time 
devoted  especially  to  the  dairy,  and  the  manufacture  of 
butter  and  cheese.  They  support  themselves,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  upon  this  branch  of  farming;  and 
hence  it  is  held  in  the  highest  respect,  and  carried  to  a 
greater  degree  of  exactness  and  perfection,  perhaps, 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  They  are  espe- 
cially particular  in  the  breeding,  keeping,  and  care  of 
milch  cows,  as  on  them  very  much  of  their  success 
depends.  The  principles  on  which  they  practise,  in 
selecting  a  cow  to  breed  from,  are  as  follows:  She 
should  have,  they  say,  considerable  size  —  not  less  than 
four  and  a  half  or  five  feet  girth,  with  a  length  of  body  cor- 
responding ;  legs  proportionally  short ;  a  finely-formed 
head,  with  a  forehead  or  face  somewhat  concave ;  clear. 


52  FORM     OF    THE    DUTCH     COW. 

large,  mild,  and  sparkling  eyes,  yet  with  no  expression 
of  wildness  :  tolerably  large  and  stout  ears,  standing  out 
from  the  head ;  fine,  well-curved  horns  ;  a  rather  short 
than  long,  thick,  broad  neck,  well  set  against  the  chest 
and  withers ;  the  front  part  of  the  breast  and  the  shoul- 
ders must  be  broad  and  fleshy;  the  low-hanging  dewlap 
must  be  soft  to  the  touch ;  the  back  and  loins  must  be 
properly  projected,  somewhat  broad,  the  bones  not  too 
sharp,  but  well  covered  with  flesh  ;  the  animal  should 
have  long,  curved  ribs,  which  form  a  broad  breast-bone  ; 
the  body  must  be  round  and  deep,  but  not  sunken  into 
a  hanging  belly  ;  the  rump  must  not  be  uneven,  the  hip- 
bones should  not  stand  out  too  broad  and  spreading, 
but  all  the  parts  should  be  level  and  well  filled  up ;  a 
fine  tail,  set  moderately  high  up  and  tolerably  long,  but 
slender,  with  a  thick,  bushy  tuft  of  hair  at  the  end, 
hanging  down  below  the  hocks ;  the  legs  must  be  short 
and  low,  but  strong  in  the  bony  structure ;  the  knees 
broad,  with  flexible  joints  ;  the  muscles  and  sinews  must 
be  firm  and  sound,  the  hoofs  broad  and  flat,  and  the 
position  of  the  legs  natural,  not  too  close  and  crowded; 
the  hide,  covered  with  fine  glossy  hair,  must  be  soft  and 
mellow  to  the  touch,  and  set  loose  upon  the  body.  A 
large,  rather  long,  white  and  loose  udder,  extending 
well  back,  with  four  long  teats,  serves  also  as  a  char- 
acteristic mark  of  a  good  milch  cow.  Large  and  prom- 
inent milk-veins  must  extend  from  the  navel  back  to 
the  udder ;  the  belly  of  a  good  milch  cow  should  not  be 
too  deep  and  hanging.  The  color  of  the  North  Dutch 
cattle  is  mostly  variegated.  Cows  with  only  one  color 
are  no  favorites.  Red  or  black  variegated,  gray  and 
blue  variegated,  roan,  spotted  and  white  variegated 
cows,  are  especially  liked. 

The  annexed  cut  represents  a  cow  most  esteemed  in  the 
North  of  France.    It  is  the  type  of  the  race  so  noted  for 


THE    DENMARKS. 


53 


the  production   of  milk,  and  of  the    excellent     dairy 
breeds  of  Holland  and  the  low  countries. 

In  1627,  cattle  were  brought  from  Sweden  to  the  set- 
tlements on  the  Delaware  by  the  Swedish  West  India 
Company.     In  1631,  1632,  and  1633,  several  importa- 


Fig.  13.    Dutch  Dairy  Cow 


faaaer- 


tions  were  made  into  New  Hampshire  by  Capt.  John 
Mason,  who,  with  Gorges,  procured  the  patent  of  large 
tracts  of  land  in  the  vicinity  of  Piscataqua  River,  and 
immediately  formed  settlements  there.  The  object  of 
Mason  was  to  carry  on  the  manufacture  of  potash. 
For  this  purpose  he  employed  the  Danes ;  and  it  was  in 
his  voyages  to  and  from  Denmark  that  he  procured 
many  Danish  cattle  and  horses,  which  were  subse- 
quently diffused  over  that  whole  region,  and  large  num- 
bers of  which  were  driven  to  the  vicinity  of  Boston  and 
sold.  These  facts  are  authenticated  by  original  doc- 
uments and  depositions  now  on  file  in  the  office  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  of  New  Hampshire.  The  Danish  cat- 
tle are  there  described  as  large  and  coarse,  of  a  yellow 
color ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  they  were  procured  by 


54  WORKING     AND     MILKING     QUALITIES. 

Mason  as  being  best  capable  of  enduring  the  severity  of 
the  climate  and  the  hardships  to  which  they  were  to  be 
subjected.  However  this  may  have  been,  they  very 
soon  spread  among  the  colonists  of  the  Massachusetts 
Bay,  and  have  undoubtedly  left  their  marks  on  the 
stock  of  New  England  and  the  Middle  States,  which 
exist  to  some  extent  even  to  the  present  day,  mixed  in 
with  an  infinite  multitude  of  crosses  with  the  Dev- 
ons,  the  Dutch  cattle  already  alluded  to,  the  black  cattle 
of  Spain  and  Wales,  and  the  long-horn  and  the  short- 
horn, most  of  which  crosses  were  accidental,  or  due  to 
local  circumstances  or  individual  convenience.  Many 
of  these  cattle,  the  descendants  of  such  crosses,  are  of 
a  very  high  order  of  merit,  but  to  what  particular  cross 
it  is  due  it  is  impossible  to  say.  They  make  generally 
hardy,  strong,  and  docile  oxen,  easily  broken  to  the 
yoke  and  quick  to  work,  with  a  fair  tendency  to  fatten 
when  well  fed ;  while  the  cows,  though  often  ill-shaped, 
are  sometimes  remarkably  good  milkers,  especially  as 
regards  the  quantity  they  give. 

I  have  very  often  heard  the  best  judges  of  stock  say 
that  if  they  desired  to  select  a  dairy  of  cows  for  milk 
for  sale,  they  would  go  around  and  select  cows  com- 
monly called  native,  rather  than  resort  to  pure-bred  ani- 
mals of  any  of  the  established  breeds,  and  that  they  be- 
lieved they  should  find  such  a  dairy  the  most  profitable. 

In  color,  the  natives,  made  up  as  already  indicated, 
are  exceedingly  various.  The  old  Denmark*,  which  to 
a  considerable  extent  laid  the  foundation  of  the  stock 
of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  were  light  yellow.  The 
Dutch  of  New  York  and  the  Middle  States  were  black 
and  white;  the  Spanish  and  Welsh  were  generally 
black ;  the  Devons,  which  are  supposed  to  have  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  stock  of  some  of  the  states,  were  red. 
Crosses  of  the  Denmark  with  the   Spanish  and  Welsh 


WANT     OF    UNIFORMITY.  55 

naturally  made  a  dark  brindle.  Crosses  of  the  Denmark 
and  Devon  often  made  a  lighter  or  yellowish  brindle, 
while  the  more  recent  importations  of  Jerseys  and 
short-horns  have  generally  produced  a  beautiful  spotted 
progeny.  The  deep  red  has  long  been  a  favorite  color 
in  New  England ;  but  the  prejudice  in  its  favor  is  fast 
giving  way  to  more  variegated  colors. 

But,  though  we  have .  already  an  exceedingly  valua- 
ble foundation  for  improvement,  no  one  will  pretend  to 
deny  that  our  cattle,  as  a  whole,  are  susceptible  of  it  in 
many  respects.  They  possess  neither  the  size,  the  sym- 
metry, nor  the  early  maturity,  of  the  short-horns ;  they 
do  not,  as  a  general  thing,  possess  the  fineness  of  bone, 
the  beauty  of  form  and  color,  nor  the  activity,  of 
the  Devons  or  the  Herefords ;  they  do  not  possess 
that  uniform  richness  of  milk,  united  with  generous 
quantity,  of  the  Ayrshires,  nor  the  surpassing  richness 
of  milk  of  the  Jerseys :  but,  above  all,  they  do  not  pos- 
sess the  power  of  transmitting  the  many  good  qualities 
which  they  often  have  to  their  offspring,  which  is  a 
characteristic  of  all  well-established  breeds. 

Equally  certain  is  it,  in  the  opinion  of  many  good 
judges,  that  the  dairy  stock  of  New  England  has  not 
been  improved  in  its  intrinsic  good  qualities  during  the 
last  thirty  or  forty  }Tears.  Cows  of  the  very  highest 
order  as  milkers  were  as  frequently  met  with,  they  say, 
in  1825,  as  at  the  present  time.  Any  increased  product 
of  our  dairies  they  ascribe  to  improved  care  and  feed 
ing,  rather  than  to  improvement  in  the  dairy  qualities 
of  the  stock. 

This  may  not  be  true  of  some  other  sections  of  the 
country,  where  the  dairy  has  been  a  more  special 
object  of  pursuit,  and  where  the  custom  of  raising  the 
best  male  calves  of  the  neighborhood,  or  those  that 
came  from  the  best  dairy  cows,  and  then  of  using  only 


56  MILKING    BY     THE    MOU'.  —  TREATMENT. 

the  best-formed  bulls,  has  long  prevailed.  In  this  way 
some  progress  has,  doubtless,  been  made. 

There  is  an  old  adage  among  the  dairy  farmers  of 
Ayrshire,  that  "  The  cow  gives  her  milk  by  the  mou'," 
which  was  slightly  varied  from  an  old  German  proverb, 
that  "  The  cow  milks  only  through  the  throat."  It  is 
fortunate,  indeed,  that  wiser  and  more  humane  ideas 
prevail  with  regard  to  the  care  of  stock  of  all  kinds  ; 
for  it  is  well  known  that  the  treatment  the  stock  of 
the  country  received  for  the  first  two  centuries  after 
its  settlement  was  often  barbarous  and  cruel  in  the 
extreme,  and  that  thousands  perished,  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  colonies,  from  exposure  and  starvation. 
Even  within  my  own  distinct  recollection,  it  was 
thought,  for  miles  around  my  native  place,  that  cows 
and  young  stock  should  remain  out  of  doors  exposed 
to  the  cold  winter  days,  to  "  toughen  ;  "  and  that,  too, 
by  men  who  styled  themselves  "  practical"  farmers. 

Mr.  Henry  Colman  truly  asserted,  in  1841,  that  the 
general  treatment  of  cows  in  New  England  would  not 
be  an  inapt  subject  of  presentment  by  a  grand  jury. 
There  were,  at  that  time,  it  is  true,  many  honorable 
exceptions ;  but  the  assertion  was  strictly  correct  so 
far  as  it  applied  to  the  section  of  which  I  then  had  a 
personal  knowledge.  Judging  from  the  anxiety  mani- 
fested by  those  who  enter  superior  milch  cows  for  the 
premiums  offered  by  agricultural  societies  to  show  that 
they  have  had  nothing,  or  next  to  nothing,  to  eat,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  false  ideas  with  regard  to  the  feeding  and 
treatment  of  this  animal  have  not  yet  wholly  disap- 
peared. But,  if  little  improvement  has  been  made  in 
our  dairy  stock  except  that  produced  by  more  liberal 
feeding,  it  simply  shows  that  our  efforts  have  not  been 
made  in  the  right  direction. 

The  raising  of  cattle  has  now  become  a  source  of 


GREAT  QUESTIONS.  —  ECONOMY.        67 

profit  in  many  sections  to  a  greater  extent,  at  least, 
than  formerly,  and  it  becomes  a  matter  of  great  practi- 
cal importance  to  our  farmers  to  take  the  proper  steps 
to  improve  them.     Indeed,  the  questions,  what  is  the 
best  breed,  and  what  are  the   best  crosses,  and  how 
shall  I  improve  my  stock,  are  now  almost  daily  asked ; 
and  their  practical  solution  would  add  many  thousand 
dollars  to  the  aggregate  wealth  of  the  farmers  of  the 
country,  if  they  would  all  study  their   own  interests. 
The  time  is  gradually  passing  away  when  the  intelli- 
gent practical  farmer  will  be  willing  to  put  his  cows 
to  any  mere  "  runt "  of  a  bull,  simply  because  his  ser- 
vice may  be  had  for  twenty-five  cents  ;  for,  even  if  the 
progeny  is  to  go   to  the  butcher,  the  calf  sired  by  a 
pure-bred  bull,  particularly  of  a  race  distinguished  for 
fineness  of  bone,  symmetry  of  form,  and  early  maturity, 
will  bring  a  much  higher  price  at  the  same  age  than  the 
calf  sired  by  a  scrub.     Blood  has  a  money  value,  which 
will,    sooner  or   later,  be  generally  appreciated.     The 
first  and  most   important  object  of  the    farmer  is    to 
get  the    greatest  money-return   for  his  labor  and  his 
produce;  and  it  is  for  his  interest  to  obtain  an  animal  — 
a  calf,  for  instance — that  will  yield  the  largest  profit  on 
the  outlay.     If  a  calf,  for  which  the  original  outlay  was 
five  dollars,  will  bring  at  the  same  age,  and  on  the  same 
keep,  more  real  net  profit  than  another,  the  original  out- 
lay for  which  was  but  twenty-five  cents,  it  is  certainly 
for  the  farmer's  interest  to  pay  the  larger  original  out- 
lay,  and  have  the  superior  animal.     Setting  all  fancy 
aside,  it  is  merely  a  question  of  dollars  and  cents  ;  but 
one  thing  is  certain,  and  that  is,  that  the  farmer  cannot 
afford  to  keep  poor  stock.    It  eats  as  much,  and  requires 
nearly  the  same  amount  of  care  and  attention,  as  stock 
of  the  best  quality;  while  it  is  equally  certain  that  stock 
of  ever  so  good  a  quality,  whether  grade,  "  native,"  or 


58  HOW     TO     IMPROVE.  —  DIFFICULTIES. 

thorough-bred,  will  be  sure  to  deteriorate  and  sink  to 
the  level  of  poor  stock,  by  neglect  and  want  of  proper 
attention. 

How,  then,  are  we  to  improve  our  stock  ?  Not,  surely, 
by  that  indiscriminate  crossing,  with  a  total  disregard  to 
all  well-established  principles,  which  has  thus  far  marked 
our  efforts  generally  with  foreign  stock,  and  which  is 
one  prominent  reason  why  so  little  improvement  has 
been  made  in  our  dairies ;  nor  by  leaving  all  the  results 
to  chance,  when,  by  a  careful  and  judicious  selection,  they 
may  be  within  our  own  control.  Two  modes  of  improve- 
ment seem  to  suggest  themselves  to  the  mind  of  the 
breeder,  either  of  which,  apparently,  promises  good 
results.  The  first  is,  to  select  from  among  our  native 
cattle  the  most  perfect  animals  not  known  or  suspected 
to  be  related  to  any  of  the  well-established  breeds,  and 
to  use  them  as  breeders.  This  is  a  mode  of  improve- 
ment simple  enough,  if  adopted  and  carried  on  with 
animals  of  any  known  breed ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  the  onl}r 
mode  of  improvement  which  preserves  the  purity  of 
blood ;  but,  to  do  it  successfully,  requires  great  expe- 
rience, a  good  and  sure  eye  for  stock,  a  mind  free  from 
prejudice,  and  indefatigable  patience  and  perseverance. 
It  is  absolutely  necessary,  also,  to  pay  special  attention 
to  the  calves  thus  produced;  to  furnish  them  at  all  times, 
summer  and  winter,  with  an  abundant  supply  of  nutri- 
tious food,  and  to  regulate  it  according  to  their  growth. 
Few  men  are  to  be  found  willing  to  undertake  the 
herculean  task  of  building  up  a  new  breed  in  this  way 
from  grade  stock.  An  objection  meets  us  at  the  very 
outset,  which  is  that  it  would  require  a  long  series  of 
years  to  arrive  at  any  satisfactory  results,  from  the  fact 
that  no  two  animals,  made  up,  as  our  "  native  "  cattle 
are,  of  such  a  variety  of  elements  and  crosses,  could 
be  found  sufficiently  alike  to  produce  their  kind.     The 


SECOND  METHOD.  —  CHANCE  ANIMALS.     59 

principle  that  like  produces  like  may  be  perfectly  true, 
and  in  the  well-known  breeds  it  is  not  difficult  to  find 
two  animals  that  will  be  sure  to  transmit  their  own 
characteristics  to  their  offspring ;  but,  with  two  animals 
which  cannot  be  classed  with  any  breed,  the  defects  of 
an  ill-bred  ancestry  will  be  liable  to  appear  through  sev- 
eral generations,  and  thus  thwart  and  disappoint  the 
expectations  of  the  breeder.  The  objection  of  time,  and 
expense,  and  disappointment,  attending  this  method, 
should  have  no  weight,  if  there  were  no  more  speedy 
method  of  accomplishing  equally  desirable  results. 

The  second  mode  is  somewhat  more  feasible  ;  and 
that  is,  to  select  animals  from  races  already  improved 
and  well-nigh  perfected,  to  cross  with  our  cattle,  using 
none  but  good  specimens  of  pure-bred  males,  and  select- 
ing, if  our  object  is  to  improve  stock  for  the  dairy,  only 
such  as  belong  to  a  race  distinguished  for  dairy  qual- 
ities; or,  if  resort  is  had  to  other  breeds  less  remarkable 
for  such  qualities,  such  only  as  are  descended  from  large 
and  generous  milkers.  And  here  it  may  be  remarked 
that  these  qualities  do  not  belong  to  any  one  breed  ex- 
clusively, though,  as  they  depend  mainly  on  structure 
and  temperament,  which  are  hereditary  to  a  considerable 
extent,  they  are  themselves  transmissible.  In  almost 
every  breed  we  can  find  individual  good  milkers  which 
greatly  surpass  the  average  of  the  cows  of  the  same 
race  or  family,  and  from  such  many  suppose  that  good 
crosses  may  be  expected.  How  often  do  we  see  farm- 
ers raising  the  calves  of  their  best  milking-cows  simply 
because  they  are  the  best  cows,  without  regard  to  the 
qualities  of  the  bull,  or  to  the  progenitors  of  either 
parent ;  and  how  often  are  they  disappointed,  at  the  end 
of  three  or  four  years  of  labor  aiid  expense  !  Now. 
though  a  cow  of  a  bad  milking  family,  or  of  a  breed  not 
at  all  distinguished  for  dairy  qualities,  may  turn  out  to 


60  EXCEPTIONAL     QUALITIES. 

be  an  excellent  milker,  and  all  else  that  may  be  desirable 
in  a  cow,  yet  these  qualities  in  her  are  accidental.  They 
are  not  supposed  to  be  transmissible  with  anything  like 
the  certainty  which  exists  where  they  are  the  fixed 
and  constant  characteristics  of  the  family.  She  is  an 
exception  to  the  rule  »of.  her  race.  A  good  calf  from 
her,  though  not,  of  course,  an  impossibility,  would  be 
very  much  the  result  of  chance.  The  resort  to  any 
but  a  distinguished  breed  of  milkers  cannot,  therefore, 
be  recommended,  nor  can  we  expect  to  improve  our 
dairies  by  it.  A  disregard  of  this  important  matter  has 
led  to  endless  disappointment,  and  has  done  much  to 
raise  up  unjust  prejudices  against  the  use  of  all  im- 
proved stock  on  our  native  cows.  As  if  we  could 
expect  nature  to  go  out  of  her  regular  course  to  give 
us  a  good  animal,  when  we  have  violated  her  laws ! 

The  offspring  of  these  crosses  will  be  grades  ;  but 
grades  are  often  better  for  the  practical  purposes  of 
the  farmer  than  pure-bred  animals.  The  skill  of  the 
breeder  is  especially  manifest  in  the  selection  of  animals 
to  breed  from,  since  both  parents  undoubtedly  have  a 
great  influence  in  transmitting  the  milking  qualities  of  the 
race.  But  this  method  of  improvement  requires  less 
exact  and  critical  knowledge  than  the  first,  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  easier  to  appreciate  the  good  points  of  an  ani- 
mal already  perfected,  or  greatly  improved,  than  to  dis- 
cover them  in  animals  which  it  is  our  desire  to  improve, 
and  which  are  inferior  in  form,  possessing  only  the  ele- 
ments of  a  better  stock.  It  has  also  an  immense  advan- 
tage, since  results  may  be  far  more  rapidly  attained,  and 
improvements  effected  which,  by  the  first  method, — that 
of  creating  or  building  up  a  race  from  the  so-called 
natives,  by  judicious  selections,  —  would  be  looked  for 
in  vain  in  the  ordinary  life  of  man.  All  grades  are  pro- 
duced by  this  second  method ;  but  all  grades  are  not 


SPECIAL     OBJECTS.  —  GOOD     POINTS.  6] 

equally  good,  nor  equally  well  adapted  to  meet  the 
farmer's  wants.  It  is  desirable  to  know,  then,  what, 
on  the  whole,  are  the  best  and  most  profitable  to  the 
practical  farmer. 

We  want  cattle  for  distinct  purposes,  as  for  milk, 
beef,  or  labor.  In  a  large  majority  of  cases,  —  espe- 
cially in  the  dairy  districts,  comprising  the  Middle  and 
Eastern  States,  at  least,  —  the  farmer  cares  more  for 
the  milking  qualities  of  his  cows,  especially  for  the 
quantity  they  give,  than  for  their  fitness  for  grazing,  or 
aptness  to  fatten.  These  latter  points  become  more 
important  in  the  Western  and  some  of  the  Southern 
States,  where  far  greater  attention  is  paid  to  breeding 
and  to  feeding,  and  where  comparatively  little  attention 
is  given  to  the  productions  of  the  dairy.  A  stock  of 
cattle  that  might  suit  one  farmer  might  be  wholly 
unsuited  to  another ;  and  in  each  particular  case  the 
breeder  should  have  some  special  object  in  view,  and 
select  his  animals  with  reference  to  it.  But  there 
are  some  general  principles  that  apply  to  breeding 
everywhere,  and  which,  in  many  cases,  are  not  well 
understood. 

It  would  not  be  desirable,  even  if  it  were  possible,  by 
crossing,  to  breed  out  all  the  general  characteristics  of 
many  of  oui  native  cattle.  They  have  many  valuable 
qualities  adapted  to  our  climate  and  soil,  and  to  the 
geological  structure  of  the  country ;  and  these  should 
be  preserved,  while  we  improve  the  points  in  which 
many  of  them  are  deficient,  such  as  a  want  of  precocity 
and  aptitude  to  fatten,  where  it  is  an  object  to  attain 
this  quality,  coarseness  of  bone,  and  lack  of  symmetry, 
which  is  often  apparent,  especially  when  the  form  of 
the  animal  does  not  indicate  a  near  relation  to  some  of 
the  established  breeds. 

It  ie  a  well-known  fact  that,  in  crossing,  the  produce 
6 


62  INFLUENCE     OF     MALE     AND     FEMALE. 

most  frequently  takes  after  the  male  parent,  especially, 
it  is  thought,  in  exterior  form,  in  its  organs  of  locomo- 
tion, such  as  the  bones,  the  muscles,  &c.  Particularly 
is  this  the  case  when  the  male  belongs  to  an  old  and 
well-established  breed,  and  the  female  belongs  to  no 
known  breed,  and  has  no  strongly-marked  and  fixed 
points.  Put  a  Galloway  bull,  for  instance,  to  a  native 
cow,  and  the  calf  will,  as  a  general  rule,  be  hornless. 
Put  a  ram  without  horns  to  ewes  with  horns,  and  most 
of  the  lambs  will  be  destitute  of  horns  ;  that  is,  they 
take  the  characteristics  of  the  father  rather  than  the 
dam ;  and  this  rule  holds  good  generally  in  breeding, 
though,  like  all  other  rules,  it  has,  of  course,  its  excep- 
tions. Hence,  if  this  position  be  correct,  the  first 
principle  which  the  good  sense  of  the  farmer  would 
dictate  would  be  to  select  a  bull  from  a  breed  most 
noted  for  the  qualities  he  wishes  to  obtain  in  their 
greatest  perfection,  and  especially  if  the  cow  is  defi- 
cient in  those  qualities.  A  bull,  for  instance,  of  fine 
bone,  and  other  good  points  in  perfection,  will  make 
up  for  the  deficiency  of  some  of  these  points  in  the 
cow. 

On  the  other  hand,  say  the  advocates  of  this  doctrine, 
in  the  physiology  of  breeding  the  internal  structure 
of  the  offspring,  the  organs  of  secretion,  the  mucous 
membranes,  the  respiratory  organs,  &c,  are  imparted 
chiefly  by  the  dam.  Hence  it  has  sometimes  been 
found  that  by  taking  a  cow  remarkable  for  milking 
properties,  though  deficient  in  many  other  points,  as  in 
the  coarseness  of  bone  and  in  early  maturity,  and  put- 
ting to  her  a  bull  remarkable  for  symmetry  of  form  and 
fineness  of  bone,  the  offspring  has  been  superior  to  the 
cow  in  beauty  of  form  and  proportions,  and  has  still 
retained  the  milking  qualities  of  the  dam.  This  prin- 
ciple, as  alread}T  intimated,  is  questioned  by  some,  svho 


PRINCIPLES     OF     BREEDING.  63 

say  that  the  milking  qualities,  as  well  as  the  external 
form,  &c.,  are  transmitted  through  the  male  offspring. 

Mr.  James  Dickson,  an  experienced  breeder  .and 
drover,  who  views  the  subject  from  his  own  standpoint, 
says  :  "  A  great  part  of  the  art  of  breeding  lies  in  the 
principle  of  judicious  crossing ;  for  it  is  only  by  attend- 
ing properly  to  this  that  success  is  to  be  attained,  and 
animals  produced  that  shall  yield  the  greatest  amount 
of  profit  for  the  food  they  consume.  All  eminent 
breeders  know  full  well  that  ill-bred  animals  are  un- 
profitable both  to  the  breeder  and  feeder.  To  carry 
out  the  system  of  crossing  judiciously,  certain  breeds 
of  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  <fec,  must  be  kept  pure  of  their 
kind — males  especially;  indeed,  as  a  general  rule,  no 
animal  possessing  spurious  blood,  or  admixture  with 
other  breeds,  should  be  used.  The  produce  in  almost 
all  cases  assimilates  to  the  male  parent ;  and  I  should 
say  that  in  crossing  the  use  of  any  males  not  pure-bred 
is  injudicious,  and  ought  to  be  avoided." 

If,  therefore,  a  cross  is  effected  with  satisfactory  results, 
it  should  be  continued  by  resorting  to  pure-bred  bulls, 
and  not  by  the  use  of  any  grade  bulls  thus  obtained  ; 
for,  though  a  grade  bull  may  be  a  very  fine  animal,  it 
has  been  found  that  he  does  not  transmit  his  good 
qualities  with  anything  like  the  certainty  of  a  pure- 
bred one.  The  more  desirable  qualities  are  united  in 
the  bull,  the  better ;  but  the  special  reason  for  the  use 
of  a  pure-bred  male  in  crossing  is  not  so  much  that  the 
particular  individual  selected  has  these  qualities  most 
perfectly  developed  in  himself,  as  that  they  are  hered- 
itary in  the  breed  to  which  he  belongs.  The  moment 
the  line  is  crossed,  and  the  pedigree  broken,  uncer- 
tainty commences.  Although  the  form  of  the  grade 
bull  may,  in  individual  cases,  be  even  superior  to  that 
of  his  pure-bred  sire,  yet  there  is  less  likelihood  of  his 


G4    GUENON'S    METHOD.  —  MARKS    OF    A    MILKER. 

transmitting  the  qualities  for  which  his  breed  is  most 
noted  ;  and  when  it  is  considered  that  during  his  life 
he  may  scatter  his  progeny  over  a  considerable  section 
of  country,  and  thus  affect  the  cattle  of  his  whole 
neighborhood,  attention  to  this  becomes  a  matter  of 
no  small  public  importance. 

This  principle,  so  far  as  its  application  to  breeding 
for  the  shambles  is  concerned,  seems  to  me  to  be  sound, 
and  fully  established  by  long  experience  and  practice. 
Perhaps  it  is  equally  so,  also,  in  breeding  for  the 
dairy.  But  it  may  be  well  to  consider  whether  there 
are  not  other  rational  modes  of  judgment  in  the  selec- 
tion of  animals  for  breeding  with  this  specific  object 
in  view. 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  with  regard  to  the 
practical  value  of  the  system  of  classification  and  judg- 
ment of  milch  cows  discovered  and  developed  by 
Guenon:  some  being  inclined  to  ridicule  it,  as  absurd  * 
others  to  adopt  it  implicitly,  and  follow  it  out  in  all 
its  details  ;  and  others  still — and  among  this  class  I  gen- 
erally find  a  very  large  number  of  the  most  sensible 
practical  judges  of  stock  —  to  admit  that  in  the  main  it 
is  correct,  though  they  discredit  the  practicability  of 
carrying  it  so  far,  and  so  minutely  into  detail,  as  its 
author  did. 

It  may  be  remarked,  at  the  outset,  that  the  fact  that 
the  best  of  the  signs  of  a  great  and  good  milker 
adopted  by  Guenon  are  generally  found  united  with  tho 
best  forms  and  marks  almost  universally  admitted  and* 
practised  upon  by  good  judges,  gives,  at  least,  some 
plausibility  to  the  system,  while  the  importance  of  it, 
if  it  be  correct,  is  sufficient  to  demand  a  careful  exam- 
ination. Every  good  judge  of  a  milch  cow,  for  instance, 
wants  to  see  in  her  a  small,  fine  head,  with  short  and 
yellowish  horns  ;  a  soft,  delicate,  and  close  coat  of  hair 


THE    MILK-MIRROR. —  EXPLANATION.  6o 

a  skin  soft  and  flexible  over  the  rump  ;  broad,  well- 
spread  ribs,  covered  with  a  loose  skin  of  medium  thick- 
ness ;  a  broad  chest ;  a  long,  slender  tail ;  straight 
hind  legs  ;  a  large,  regularly-formed  udder,  covered  with 
short,  close,  silky  hair ;  four  teats  of  equal  size  and 
length,  set  wide  apart ;  large,  projecting  lacteal  veins, 
which  run  along  under  the  belly  from  the  udder  tow- 
ards the  fore  legs,  forming  a  fork  at  the  end,  and 
finally  losing  themselves  in  a  round  cavity  ;  and  when 
these  points,  or  any  considerable  number  of  them,  are 
found  united  in  a  cow,  she  would  be  pronounced  a 
good  milker.  An  animal  in  which  these  signs  are 
found  would  rarely  fail  of  having  a  good  "  milk-mirror/7 
or  escutcheon;  on  which  Guenon,  after  many  years  of 
careful  observation  and  experiment,  came  to  lay  par- 
ticular stress  ;  and  on  the  basis  of  which  he  built  up  a 
system  or  theory  so  complicated  as  to  be  of  little  prac- 
tical value  compared  with  what  it  might  have  been  had 
he  seen  fit  to  simplify  it  so  as  to  bring  it  within  the 
easy  comprehension  of  the  farmer.  As  one  means  of 
forming  a  judgment  of  the  milking  qualities,  however, 
it  must  be  regarded  as  very  important,  since  it  is  un- 
questionably sustained  by  facts  in  a  very  large  majority 
of  cases. 

The  milk-mirror,  or  escutcheon,  is  formed  by  the  hair 
above  the  udder,  extending  upwards  between  the 
thighs,  growing  in  an  opposite  direction  from  that  of 
other  parts  of  the  body.  In  well-formed  mirrors,  found 
only  in  cows  which  have  the  arteries  which  supply  the 
milky  glands  large  and  fully  developed,  it  ordinarily  be- 
gins between  the  four  teats  in  the  middle,  and  ascends 
to  the  vulva,  and  sometimes  even  higher,  the  hair  grow- 
ing upwards.  The  direction  of  the  hair  is  subordinate 
to  that  of  the  arteries  ;  for  the  relation  existing  between 
the  direction  of  the  hair  above  the  udder  and  tin 
6*  5 


66  CORRESPONDENCE    OF    THE    MIRRORS. 

activity  of  the  milky  glands  is  apparent  on  a  careful 
examination  of  all  the  cases.  When  the  lower  part 
of  the  mirror  is  large  and  broad,  with  the  hair  grow- 
ing from  below  upwards,  and  extending  well  out  on  the 
thighs,  it  indicates  that  the  arteries  which  supply  the 
milky  glands,  and  which  are  situated  just  behind  it, 
are  large  and  capable  of  conveying  much  blood,  and 
of  giving  great  activity  to  the  functions  of  secretion. 

Now,  in  the  bull,  the  arteries  which  correspond  to 
the  mammary  or  lacteal  arteries  of  the  cow  are  not 
so  fully  developed ;  and  the  escutcheons  are  smaller, 
shorter,  and  narrower.  Guenon  applied  the  same  name, 
milk-mirror,  to  these  marks  in  the  bull ;  and  the  natural 
inference  was,  that  there  should  exist  a  correspondence 
or  similarity  in  the  mirror  of  the  bull  and  the  cow  which 
are  coupled  for  the  purpose  of  producing  an  offspring 
fit  for  the  dairy,  —  that  the  mirror  in  the  bull  should  be 
of  the  same  class,  or  of  a  better  class  than  that  of  the  cow. 

It  is  confidently  asserted  by  the  advocates  of  Gue- 
non's  method,  and  with  much  show  of  reason,  that 
the  very  large  proportion  of  cows  of  bad  or  indifferent 
milking  qualities,  compared  with  the  good,  is  owing  to 
the  mistakes  in  selecting  bulls  without  reference  to  the 
proper  marks  or  points.  As  to  the  transmission  of  the 
milk-mirror,  it  has  been  found  in  many  cases  that  bulls 
sprung  from  cows  with  good  mirrors  had  smaller  and 
more  heart-shaped  mirrors,  spreading  out  pretty  broad 
upon  the  thighs.  Pabst,  a  successful  German  breeder, 
says  that  he  has  used  such  bulls  for  three  years,  anil 
that  the  milk-mirrors  were  transmitted  in  the  majority 
of  the  male  progeny,  and  in  nearly  every  case  very 
large  and  beautiful  mirrors  were  given  to  the  heifer- 
calves.  A  son  of  the  bull  with  which  he  began  was 
serving  at  the  time  of  which  he  speaks,  having  a  mir- 
ror  more    highly   developed    than   his    sire,    and    the 


TRANSMISSION    OF    MILK-MIRROR.  67 

first  calves  of  his  get  had  also  very  large  milk-mir- 
rors. The  female  offspring  of  the  first  bull  of  good  milk- 
mirror  promised  first  rate,  though  they  had  not  then 
come  in.  His  inference  is,  that  in  breeding  from  cows 
noted  as  milkers  regard  should  be  had  to  the  form 
of  the  mirror  on  the  bull,  and  the  Chance  of  his 
transmitting  it.  If  any  credit  is  due  to  this  inge- 
nious method,  it  may  be  laid  down,  as  a  principle  in 
the  selection  of  a  bull  to  get  dairy  stock,  that  the  one 
possessing  the  largest  and  best-developed  milk-mirror 
is  the  best  for  the  purpose,  and  will  be  most  likely  to 
get  milkers  of  large  quantity  and  continued  flow.  This 
method  will  be  more  fully  developed  in  the  chapter  on 
the  Selection  of  Milch  Cows. 

But,  however   careful   we   may  be    to    select   good 
milkers,  and  to  breed  from  them  with  the  hope  of  im- 
provement, it  is  by  no  mean3  easy  to  select  such  as  are 
capable   of  transmitting    their    qualities  to   their    off- 
spring.    This    is    rendered  still   more  difficult   by  the 
fact  that  there  is  no  known  mark  to  indicate  it,  and  we 
are  left  to  use  our  own  judgment ;  for,  in  the  case  of 
bulls,  we  are  often  obliged  to  give  them  up  before  their 
progeny  have  arrived  at  an  age  to  show  their  qualities 
by  actual  trial.     We  are  thrown  back,  therefore,  upon 
their  external  marks.    But,  as  M.  Magne,  a  very  sensible 
French  writer,  justly  observes    in   his   admirable    little 
work    (Ohoix  des    Vaches  Latieres,  p.  86,  Paris,  1857  , 
the  fixed  characteristics  which  have  existed  in  races 
for  several  generations  will  be  transmitted  with  most 
certainty.     Hence  the  importance,  he  says,  of  selecting 
milch  cows   from  good  breeds  and  good  families,  and 
especially,  in  breeding  stock,  of  selecting  carefully  both 
male  and  female.    The  male  designed  to  get  dairy  stock 
ought  to  possess  the  structure  which,  in  the  cow,  indi- 
cates the  greatest  activity  of  the  mammary  glands,  as 


68  CHOICE     OF    THE     BULL. 

fineness  of  form,  mellowness  of  skin,  large  hind  quarters, 
large  and  well-developed  veins  and  escutcheon. 

A  cow  of  a  race  or  family  not  noted  as  milkers  may 
chance  to  be  an  excellent  milker,  and  this  is  enough, 
if  we  do  not  desire  to  breed  from  her  ;  but  she  would 
not  transmit  her  exceptional  qualities  like  a  cow  ol 
which  these  qualities  were  the  fixed  characteristics, 
constant  and  transmissible  in  the  breed.  These  con- 
siderations apply  also,  as  already  said,  in  the  choice  of 
a  bull.  The  attention  of  practical  men  has  been  so 
much  directed  to  the  best  points  of  good  cows,  of  late 
years,  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  study  to  propagate 
these,  if  the  breeder  desires  to  find  buyers  for  his  stock. 
The  buyer  judges  more  from  external  signs  than  from 
the  intrinsic  qualities  of  the  cow,  with  which  he  may  not 
be  acquainted. 

To  explain  the  variations  in  the  transmission  of 
milking  qualities,  we  should  bear  in  mind  that  these 
qualities  are  not  found  in  wild  cows,  and  that  they  are 
developed  only  when  man  can,  by  a  particular  course  of 
treatment,  as  by  the  act  of  milking,  the  separation  of 
the  sexes,  etc.,  cause  certain  natural  powers  to  act  with 
greater  strength  than  others  ;  that  they  incline  to  dis- 
appear as  soon  as  these  powers,  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
the  peculiarities  of  climate,  the  properties  of  plants, 
and  the  temperament  of  the  cows,  are  permitted  to  act 
according  to  the  original  plan  of  creation ;  so  that  the 
variations  which  we  consider  as  sports  of  nature  are 
incontestible  proofs  of  the  uniformity  of  her  works. 

It  is  only  by  observing  animals  carefully,  by  noting 
accurately  their  good  qualities  and  their  faults,  by 
watching  the  circumstances  in  which  individuals  are 
produced,  raised,  and  kept,  that  we  can  account  for, 
what  seems  to  us  a  sport  or  caprice  of  nature.  We  can 
then  tell,  first,  how  the  same  bull  and  cow  have   pro- 


PRINCIPLES    OF    BREEDING.  69 

duced  three  calves  with  different  properties  ;  and, 
secondly,  trace  out  the  rules  which  we  are  to  follow,  to 
be  almost  uniformly  successful  in  obtaining  stock  of  the 
best  quality. 

Experience  shows  that  the  qualities  which  are  trans- 
mitted with  most  certainty  depend  on  the  most  import- 
ant organs  of  life  ;  and  so,  in  the  forms  of  the  viscera 
and  the  skeleton,  variations  are  rare,  not  only  in  breeds 
of  the  same  species,  but  in  different  species  of  the  same 
genera. 

Moreover,  in  cases  where  the  transmission  of  proper- 
ties is  so  uncertain  as  to  seem  the  result  of  caprice  in 
nature,  these  properties  are  formed  by  superficial 
organs,  —  by  the  skin,  the  horns,  the  state  of  the  hair, 
etc. 

But  it  is  in  qualities  which  are,  in  a  measure,  arti- 
ficial, qualities  produced  by  domestication,  and  often 
more  injurious  than  useful  to  the  health  of  animals,  that 
variations  most  commonly  occur.  These  change  not 
only  with  the  breed  of  one  species,  but  with  the  dif- 
ferent individuals  of  the  same  breed,  of  the  same  half 
breed,  and  often  of  the  same  family. 

Bearing  these  elementary  principles  of  natural  his- 
tory and  physiology  in  mind,  we  shall  comprehend  how 
cows  and  bulls  well  marked  in  regard  to  escutcheons 
have  produced  stock  which  did  not  resemble  them.  M. 
Lefebvre  Sainte  Marie  asserts  that  the  influence  of  the 
escutcheons  is  very  feeble  in  the  act  of  reproduction. 

In  this  view,  the  escutcheon  is  almost  nothing  in 
itself.  It  depends  on  the  state  of  the  hair,  on  one  of 
the  most  fleeting  of  peculiarities,  on  that  which  is  least 
hereditary  in  animals.  It  has  no  value  as  a  mark  of 
good  getters  of  stock,  unless  it  is  supported  by  marks 
superior  to  it  from  their  stability,  —  a  larger  skeleton, 
double   loins,    ?    wide    rump,   highly-developed   blood- 


10        RELATIVE    SIZE    OF    MALE    AND     FEMALE. 

vessels,  —  unless  it  is  united  with  a  spacious  chest, 
round  ribs,  large  lungs,  and  a  strong  constitution. 

The  more  complete  the  correspondence  between 
these  marks,  the  more  the  milking  quality  is  connected 
with  the  general  condition  of  the  animal,  the  greater 
the  chances  of  transmission ;  and  when,  with  a  view  to 
breeding,  we  shall  choose  only  animals  having  the  two- 
fold character  of  general  vigor  of  constitution  and 
activity  of  the  mammary  system,  and  place  the  progeny 
under  favorable  circumstances,  the  qualities  will  rarely 
prove  defective.     Thus  far  the  conclusions  of  Magne. 

Another  well-known  fact  in  natural  history  is,  that 
the  size  of  animals  depends  very  much  upon  the  fer- 
tility of  the  region  they  inhabit.  Where  food  is  abun- 
dant and  nutritious,  they  increase  in  size  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  and  quality  ;  and  this  size,  under  the 
same  circumstances,  will  run  through  generations,  unless 
interrupted  by  artificial  means.  So,  if  the  food  is 
more  difficult  to  obtain,  and  the  pastures  are  short,  the 
pliancy  of  the  animal  organization  is  such  that  it 
naturally  becomes  adapted  to  it,  and  the  animal  is  of 
smaller  size  ;  and  hence  Mr.  Cline  observes  that  "  the 
general  mistake  in  crossing  has  arisen  from  an  attempt 
to  increase  the  size  of  a  native  race  of  animals,  being  a 
fruitless  effort  to  counteract  the  laws  of  nature."  Mr. 
Cline  also  says,  in  his  treatise  "  On  the  Form  of  Ani- 
mals :  "  "  Experience  has  proved  that  crossing  has  only 
succeeded  in  an  eminent  degree  in  those  instances  in 
which  the  females  were  larger  than  the  usual  propor- 
tion of  females  to  males  ;  and  that  it  has  generally  failed 
when  the  males  were  disproportionally  large.  When 
the  male  is  much  larger  than  the  female,  the  offspring 
is  generally  of  an  imperfect  form  ;  if  the  female  be 
proportionally  larger  than  the  male,  the  offspring  is 
generally   of  an   improved    form.     For   instance,   if  a 


OPINIONS     DIFFER.  jl 

well-formed  large  ram  be  put  to  ewes  proportionally 
smaller,  the  lambs  will  not  be  so  well  shaped  as  their 
parents  ;  but,  if  a  small  ram  be  put  to  larger  ewes,  the 
lambs  will  be  of  an  improved  form."  "  The  improve- 
ment depends  on  the  principle  that  the  power  of  the 
female  to  supply  her  offspring  with  nourishment  is  in 
proportion  to  her  size,  and  to  the  power  of  nourishing 
herself  from  the  excellence  of  her  constitution ;  as 
larger  animals  eat  more,  the  larger  female  may  afford 
most  nourishment  to  her  young." 

This  should,  I  am  inclined  to  think,  be  regarded  as 
another  principle  of  breeding, — that,  when  improvement 
in  form  is  desired,  the  size  of  the  female  selected 
should  be  proportionally  larger  than  the  male  ;  though 
Lord  Spencer,  a  successful  breeder,  strongly  contested 
it,  and  Mr.  Dickson,  an  excellent  judge  of  stock,  advised 
the  attempt  to  build  up  a  new  breed  by  selecting  some 
Zetland  cows,  a  very  diminutive  breed  of  Scotch  cattle, 
of  good  symmetry,  points,  and  handling,  and  a  high-bred 
West  Highland  bull  to  put  to  them.  "  The  produce 
would  probably  be,r  says  he,  "  a  neat,  handsome  little 
animal,  of  a  medium  size,  between  the  two  breeds.  The 
shaggy  hide,  long  horns,  symmetry,  and  fine  points,  of 
the  West  Highlanders,  would  be  imparted  to  this  cross, 
which  would  not  only  be  a  good  feeder  and  very  hardy, 
but  the  beef  of  superior  quality.  The  great  point 
would,  of  course,  be  the  proper  selection  of  breeding  ani- 
mals. The  next  step  towards  improving  this  would  be 
the  crossing  of  these  crosses  with  a  pure  Hereford  bull, 
which  would  improve  the  size,  and  impart  still  finer 
points,  more  substance,  with  greater  aptitude  to  fatten. 
By  combining  these  favorite  breeds,  the  produce  would, 
in  all  probability,  be  very  superior,  not  only  attaining 
to  good  weights,  but  feeding  well,  and  arriving  at 
maturity  at  an   early  age.     The   breeder  must  not  be 


72  THE    OAKES     COW. 

satisfied  and  rest  here,  but  go  a  point  further,  and 
cross  the  heifers  of  the  third  cross  with  a  short-horn 
bull."  These  successive  steps  imply  the  use  of  a  bull 
of  larger  breed,  though  not  necessarily,  perhaps,  pro- 
portionally larger  than  the  cow,  in  any  individual  case. 

This,  it  will  be  perceived,  is  a  case  of  breeding  with 
less  reference  to  the  milking  or  dairy  qualities  thar  the 
grazing.  Great  milkers  are  found  of  all  shapes,  and 
the  chief  object  of  improving  their  form  is  to  improve 
their  feeding  qualities,  or,  in  other  words,  to  unite,  as 
far  as  possible,  the  somewhat  incompatible  properties 
of  grazing  and  milking.  Graceful,  well-rounded,  and 
compact  forms,  which  constitute  beauty  in  the  eyes  of 
the  grazier,  as  well  as  in  the  estimation  of  those  not 
accustomed  to  consider  the  intrinsic  qualities  of  an 
animal,  or  not  capable  of  appreciating  them  in  a  milch 
cow,  will  very  rarely  be  found  united,  to  any  consider 
able  extent,  with  active  mammary  glands  or  milk  vessels. 
The  best  milkers  often  look  coarse  and  flabby ;  for, 
even  if  their  bony  structure  is  good  and  symmetrical, 
they  will  appear,  especially  when  in  milk,  to  have 
large,  raw  bones  and  sharp  points,  particularly  if  they 
are  largely  developed  in  the  hind  quarters,  which  is 
most  frequently  the  case,  as  is  strikingly  seen  in  the 
form  of  the  Oakes  cow,  a  native  animal,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  her  time,  in  Massachusetts,  and  winner  of  the 
first  premium  at  the  State  Fair  of  1816. 

She  yielded  in  that  year  no  less  than  four  hundred 
and  sixty-seven  and  a  quarter  pounds  of  butter  from 
May  loth  to  December  20th,  at  which  time  she  was 
giving  over  eight  quarts  of  milk,  beer  measure,  a  day. 
The  weight  of  her  milk  in  the  height  of  the  season, 
in  June,  was  but  forty-four  and  a  half  pounds  ;  not  so 
great  as  that  of  some  cows  of  the  present  day,  on  far 
less  feed  in  proportion  to  their  size.     Many  cows  can 


HANDSOME  IS  THAT  HANDSOME  DOES. 


73 


be  named  in  New  England,  at  the  present  time,  whose 
yield,  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  exceeds 
fifty  pounds  a  day,  and  some,  whose  yield  will  be  fifty- 
five  pounds,  on  less  feed  than  the  Oakes  cow  had. 


Fig.  14.    Oakes  Cow. 

The  flesh  on  the  hind  quarters  of  most  large  milkers 
bears  little  proportion  to  the  bone  ;  the  hips  protrude, 
the  pelvis  is  broad,  the  legs  far  apart,  giving  great 
space  for  the  receptacle  of  large  milk- vessels  ;  whilst 
great  flow  of  blood  to  the  milky  glands,  incident  to  this 
peculiar  structure,  keeps  them  in  more  constant  and 
greater  activity  than  any  other  organs,  so  that  the 
muscles  develop  less  than  they  otherwise  would, 
remain  slender,  and  leave  the  buttocks  and  thighs 
small  and  narrow.  Such  animals  will  seldom  acquire 
the  reputation  of  being  beautiful  in  form,  and  if  they 
are  not  decidedly  ugly,  the  owner  may  console  himself 
with  the  adage  that  "  handsome  is  that  handsome  does.'' 

But,  though  it  is  to  the  influence  of  the  male  that  we 
are  chiefly  to  look  for  improvements  in  the  form,  size, 
7 


74  CROSSES    MOST    DESIRABLE. 

muscular  development,  and  general  appearance,  of  our 
stock,  and  for  transmitting  their  milking  qualities,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  the  influence  of  the  female  is  no 
less  important ;  and  undoubtedly  the  safest  course  to 
pursue,  to  obtain  improved  animals,  is  to  select  the 
best-formed  animals,  on  both  sides,  from  the  greatest 
milking  families. 

With  regard  to  the  particular  breeds  to  select  for 
crossing  with  our  natives,  opinions  will  naturally  differ 
widely.  Those  who  are  favored  with  luxuriant  pastures 
and  abundance  of  winter  feed  will  have  no  objection 
to  large-sized  animals,  and  will  naturally  wish  to  obtain 
or  possess  grade  short-horns.  There  is  no  breed  in 
the  world  to  which  it  is  more  desirable  to  resort,  under 
such  circumstances,  particularly  where  improvement  in 
form,  early  maturity,  and  general  symmetry,  are  sought, 
in  union  with  other  qualities.  It  is  well  known  that 
some  families  of  short-horns  have  been  bred  for  the 
pail,  while  most  others  have  been  bred  chiefly  for 
beef.  If  resort  is  had  to  this  breed,  therefore,  great 
care  and  caution  should  be  observed  to  select  bulls 
from  the  milking  families  only ;  and,  unless  this  is  done 
we  shall  run  the  risk  of  losing  the  milking  qualities  of 
our  stock,  for  which  the  improvement  in  form  and 
early  maturity  can  be  little  compensation,  when  breed- 
ing l'or  the  dairy. 

It  is  a  remarkable  and  significant  fact  that  the  large 
dairies  of  London  are  nearly  filled  with  the  short-horns, 
or  short-horn  and  Yorkshire  grades ;  and  the  fact  that 
this  breed  is  selected  in  such  circumstances  for  the 
production  of  milk  to  supply  the  milk-market  speaks 
volumes  in  favor  of  this  cross.  It  is  found  that  grade 
short-horns,  after  yielding  extraordinary  quantities  of 
milk,  during  which  they  very  naturally  present  the 
most  ungainly  appearance,  will,  when  dried  off  and  fed. 


THE    LONDON    DAIRIES.  75 

take  on  flesh  very  rapidly,  and  yield  large  weights  of 
beef.  This  is  one  prominent  reason  for  keeping  them ; 
and  another  is,  that  they  occupy  less  space  than  would 
be  required  to  produce  the  same  quantity  of  milk  from 
smaller  animals,  which  might  give  even  more  milk  per 
cow  in  proportion  to  size  and  food  consumed. 

The  cross  of  the  well-bred  short-horn  and  the  native 
or  Dutch  cows  of  the  dairy  districts  of  New  York  is 
very  highly  esteemed ;  and  six  hundred  pounds  of 
cheese  a  year  is  no  uncommon  yield  for  such  grades  in 
Herkimer  and  adjacent  counties. 

The  Ayrshires  have  been  tried  in  the  London  dairies, 
but  it  was  found  that  they  were  too  difficult  to  obtain 
in  sufficient  numbers,  and  at  sufficiently  low  prices ; 
and  that  where  quantity  was  the  chief  object,  as  in  a 
milk-dairy,  and  space  a  matter  of  great  importance, 
they  could  not  compete  with  the  short-horn  and  the 
Yorkshire  cows,  and  crosses  between  these  races. 

It  often  happens,  particularly  in  milk-dairies,  that  the 
farmer  is  so  situated  as  not  to  desire  to  raise  his 
calves,  but  disposes  of  them  at  the  highest  price  to 
the  butcher.  He  will  obtain  the  greatest  weight  and 
the  highest  quality  of  veal  from  the  use  of  a'  pure- 
bred short-horn  or  Hereford  bull.  But,  on  poorer 
pastures,  where  there  is  too  little  feed  to  bring  young 
stock  to  their  most  perfect  development,  the  pure-bred 
short-horns  and  high  grades  of  the  short-horn  are 
thought,  by  some,  to  be  too  large,  and  consequent lv 
unprofitable.  How  far  this  objection  to  them  might  be 
obviated  by  stall  feeding  or  soiling,  and  the  use  of  roots, 
is  for  each  one  to  consider  who  has  these  facilities  at 
command.  ,For  most  parts  of  New  England  they  are 
unquestionably  too  large  to  be  well  maintained. 

As  to  the  Herefords,  they  cannot  be  recommended 
for  the  dairy,  either  as  pure  bloods  or  grades ;  but  in 


76        HEREFORD  AND  DEVON  GRADES. 

grazing  districts,  devoted  to  raising  beef  or  working 
cattle,  they  are  highly  and  justly  prized. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  North  Devons.  The 
pure-bred  Devon  bull,  put  to  a  good,  young  native 
cow,  produces  a  beautiful  and  valuable  cross,  either 
for  the  yoke  or  the  shambles  ;  and  if  the  cow  is  a 
remarkably  good  milker  to  begin  with,  and  the  bull 
from  a  milking  family,  there  would  be  no  fear  of  mate 
rially  lessening  the  quantity  in  the  offspring,  while  its 
form,  and  other  qualities,  would  probably  be  greatly 
improved. 

Grade  Devons  are  very  much  sought  for  working 
oxen,  and  high  prices  are  readily  obtained  for  them, 
while  as  beef  cattle  they  are  by  some  highly  esteemed. 
But,  unfortunately,  very  few  herds  are  to  be  found 
where  attention  has  been  paid  to  breeding  for  milk;  and 
great  milkers  are  the  exception,  and  very  rarely  met 
with  among  the  pure  breeds.  In  their  native  country 
they  are  bred  almost  exclusively  for  beef.  The  estima- 
tion in  which  they  are  held  as  dairy  stock,  even  by 
Devon  breeders  themselves,  both  in  England  and  in  this 
country,  has  been  shown  in  the  low  value  placed  upon 
the  development  of  the  udder  in  the  establishment  of 
the  scale  of  points  spoken  of  on  a  preceding  page  ;  from 
which  it  is  evident  that,  in  judging  of  them,  it  was  not 
contemplated  that  their  milking  qualities  should  be 
taken  into  consideration.  As  cows  for  the  dairy,  there- 
fore, they  possess  no  advantages  over  our  common 
stock,  and  we  should  hardly  look  for  improvement  from 
them  in  this  respect. 

The  Jerseys,  as  already  seen,  are  justly  celebrated  for 
the  richness  of  their  milk  and  the  butter  made  from  it 
In  this  respect  no  pure  breed  can  excel  them.  They 
are,  therefore,  as  a  dairy  breed,  worthy  of  attention. 
On  farms  where  the  making  of  butter  is  an  object   of 


JERSEY     AND     AYRSHIRE     GRADES.  77 

pursuit  and  profit,  an  infusion  of  Jersey  blood  will  be 
likely  to  secure  richness  of  milk,  and  high-flavored, 
delicious  butter.  Many  good  judges  of  stock  recom- 
mend this  cross  for  dairy  purposes;  and  the  chief  objec- 
tion that  can  be  urged  against  them  is  that  they  are,  as 
a  breed,  very  deficient  in  quantity,  which  in  a  milk- 
dairy  would  be  fatal  to  them,  while,  at  the  same  time, 
they  have  little  to  recommend  them,  as  the  Devons 
have,  on  the  score  of  beautiful  forms  and  symmetrical 
proportions.  Put  upon  a  large  and  roomy  native  cow, 
remarkable  as  a  milker,  the  produce  would  be  likely 
to  be  a  very  superior  animal. 

The  Ayrshires,  as  already  seen,  have  been  bred  with 
reference  both  to  quality  and  quantity  of  milk,  and  the 
grades  are  usually  of  a  very  high  order.  The  best 
milkers  I  have  ever  known,  in  proportion  to  their  size 
and  food,  have  been  grade  Ayrshires  ;  and  this  is  also 
the  experience  of  many  who  keep  dairies  for  the  manu- 
facture of  butter  and  cheese,  as  well  as  for  the  sale  of 
milk.  A  cross  obtained  from  an  Ayrshire  bull  of  good 
size  and  a  pure-bred  short-horn  cow  will  produce  a 
stock  which  it  will  be  hard  to  beat  at  the  pail,  espe- 
cially if  the  cow  belong  to  any  of  the  families  of  short- 
horns which  have  been  bred  with  reference  to  their 
milking  qualities,  as  some  of  them  have.  I  have  taken 
great  pains  to  inquire  of  dairymen  as  to  the  breed  or 
grade  of  their  best  cows,  and  what  they  consider  the 
best  cows  for  milk  for  their  purposes  ;  and  the  answer 
has  almost  invariably  been  the  Ayrshire  and  the  native. 
The  Ayrshires  have  by  no  means  been  a  failure  in  this 
country,  although  I  do  not  think  that,  as  a  general 
thing,  we  have  been  so  fortunate  hitherto  as  to  import 
the  best  specimens  of  them.  If  any  improvement  has 
been  made  in  our  dairy  stock  apart  from  that  effected 
by  a  higher  and  more  liberal  course  of  feeding,  it  has 
7* 


78  GALLOWAYS. SUFFOLKS. 

come,  in  a  great  measure,  from  the  Ayrshires  ;  and, 
had  the  facilities  been  offered  to  cross  our  common 
stock  with  them  to  greater  extent,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  improvement  would  have  been  greater 
and  more  perceptible. 

It  should,  however,  be  said,  that  in  sections  where 
the  feed  is  naturally  luxuriant,  and  adapted  to  grazing 
large  animals,  some  families  of  the  short-horns  crossed 
with  our  natives  have  produced  an  equally  good  stock 
for  cheese  and  milk  dairies. 

Before  closing  this  part  of  the  subject,  it  is  proper  to 
observe  that  among  the  earlier  importations  were  sev- 
eral varieties  of  hornless  cattle,  and  that  they  have  been 
kept  distinct  in  some  sections,  or  where  they  have  been 
crossed  with  the  common  stock  there  has  been  a  tend- 
ency to  produce  hornless  grades.  These  are  not  unfre- 
quently  known  under  the  name  of  buffalo  cattle.  They 
were,  in  many  cases,  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  the 
Galloway  breed ;  or,  which  is  more  likely,  to  the  Suffolk 
dun,  a  variety  of  the  Galloway,  and  a  far  better  milking 
stock  than  the  Galloways,  from  which  it  sprung.  The 
polled,  or  hornless  cattle,  vary  in  color  and  qualities, 
but  they  are  usually  very  good  milkers  when  well 
Kept,  and  many  of  them  fatten  well,  and  attain  good 
weights. 

The  Hungarian  cattle  have  also  been  imported,  to 
some  extent,  into  different  parts  of  the  country,  and 
have  been  crossed  upon  the  natives  with  some  success. 
Many  other  strains  of  blood  from  different  breeds  have 
contributed  to  build  up  the  common  stock  of  the  coun- 
try of  the  present  day  ;  and  there  can  be  no  question 
that  its  appearance  and  value  have  been  largely  im- 
proved during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  nor  that 
improvements  are  still  in  progress  which  will  lead  to 
satisfactory  results  in  future. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  SELECTION  OF  MILCH  COWS. 

We  have  now  reviewed  the  prominent  races  of  cattle 
found  in  American  dairy  herds,  and  devoted  some  space 
to  an  examination  of  the  principles  to  be  followed  in 
the  breeding  of  dairy  stock  ;  and  this  has  involved,  to 
some  extent,  the  choice  of  breeds,  and  the  selection  of 
individual  animals,  with  special  reference,  however,  to 
transmitting  and  improving  their  milking  properties. 
But  the  selection  of  cows  for  the  dairy  is  of  such  im- 
portance as  to  demand  the  most  careful  consideration. 

The  objects  of  a  dairy  are  three-fold:  the  production  of 
milk  for  sale,  mainly  confined  to  milk-dairies,  and  to  small- 
er farms  in  the  vicinity  of  large  towns,  where  a  mixed 
husbandry  is  followed ;  the  production  of  butter,  chiefly 
confined  to  farms  at  a  distance  from  cities  and  large 
towns,  which  furnish  a  ready  market  for  milk  ;  and  the 
fabrication  of  cheese,  carried  on  under  circumstances 
somewhat  similar  to  the  manufacture  of  butter,  and  some- 
times united  with  it  as  an  object  of  pursuit,  on  the  farm. 

These  different  objects  should,  therefore,  be  kept  in 
view,  in  the  selection  of  cows  ;  for  animals  which  would 
be  most  profitable  for  the  milk-dairy  might  be  very 
unprofitable  in  the  butter-dairy — a  fact  of  almost  daily 
experience.  The  productiveness  of  the  cow  does  not 
depend  on  her  breed  so  much  as  upon  her  food  and 
management,  her  temperament  and  health,  and  the  activ- 
ity and  energy  of  the  organs  of  digestion  and  secretion. 


80  JUDGING     OF    STOCK. 

These  latter,  it  is  true,  depending  upon  the  structure  of 
the  chest  and  other  parts,  are  far  better  developed,  and 
more  permanently  fixed,  in  some  races  than  in  others, 
and  are  derived  more  or  less  by  descent,  and  capable 
of  being  transmitted.  The  breed,  therefore,  cannot  be 
wholly  disregarded,  inasmuch  as  it  is  an  element  in 
forming  a  judgment  of  the  merits  of  a  milch  cow. 

Cows,  of  whatever  breed,  having  the  best  developed 
external  marks  of  good  milkers,  will  very  rarely  disap- 
point the  practised  eye  or  the  skilful  hand ;  while  cows 
of  breeds  in  highest  repute  for  the  dairy,  and  which  do 
not  show  these  marks,  will  as  certainly  fail  to  answer 
the  expectations  of  those  who  select  them  simply  for 
the  breed.  Those  who  would  obtain  skill  in  judging  of 
these  marks,  and  by  means  of  them  be  able  to  estimate 
the  value  of  a  cow,  need  not  expect  to  attain  this  end 
without  long  study  and  practical  observation,  for  which 
some  men  have  far  greater  talent  than  others ;  being 
able,  while  examining  a  particular  mark  or  favorite 
characteristic  of  a  milker,  to  take  in  all  others  at  a 
glance,  and  so,  while  appearing  to  form  their  opinion 
from  one  or  two  important  points,  actually  to  estimate 
the  whole  development  of  the  animal,  while  others 
must  examine  in  detail  each  point  by  itself.  Long  prac- 
tice is  required,  therefore,  to  become  an  adept  in  the 
judgment  and  selection  of  milch  cows  ;  but  still  much 
assistance  may,  unquestionably,  be  derived  by  careful 
attention  to  the  external  signs  which  have  been  long 
observed  to  indicate  the  milking  qualities. 

It  is  important,  in  the  first  place,  to  be  able  to  judge 
of  the  age  of  the  cow.  Few  farmers  wish  to  pur- 
chase a  cow  for  the  dairy  after  she  has  passed  her 
prime,  which  will  ordinarily  be  at  the  age  of  nine  or 
ten  years,  varying,  of  course,  according  to  care,  feed- 
ing, <fec,  in  the  earlier  part  of  her  life. 


RINGS    ON    THE     HORNS. 


81 


The  most  usual  mode  of  forming  an  estimate  of  the 
age  of  cattle  is  by  an  examination  of  the  horn.  At 
three  years  old,  as  a  general  rule,  the  horns  are  per- 
fectly smooth;  after  this,  a  ring  appears  near  the  root, 
and  annually  afterward  a  new  one  is  formed  ;  so  that; 
by  adding  two  years  to  the  first  ring,  the  age  is  calcu- 
lated. This  is  a  very  uncertain  mode  of  judging.  The 
rings  are  distinct  only  in  the  cow ;  and  it  is  well  known 
that  if  a  heifer  goes  to  bull  when  she  is  two  years  old, 
or  a  little  before  or  after  that  time,  a  change  takes  place 
in  the  horn,  and  the  first  ring  appears  ;  so  that  a  real 
three-year-old  would  carry  the  mark  of  a  four-year-old. 

The  rings  on  the  horns  of  a  bull  are  either  not  seen 
until  five,  or  they  cannot  be  traced  at  all ;  while  in  the 
ox  they  do  not  appear  till  he  is  five  years  old,  and  then 
are  often  very  indistinct.  In  addition  to  this,  it  is  by  no 
means  an  uncommon  practice  to  file  the  horns,  so  as  to 
make  them  smooth,  and  to  give  the  animal  the  appear- 
ance of  being  much  younger  than  it  really  is.  This  is, 
therefore,  an  exceedingly  fallacious  guide,  and  we  can- 
not rely  on  it  without  being  subject  to  imposition. 


Fig.  15.    Teeth  at  birth. 

The  surest  indication  of  the 


Fig.  16.    Second  week. 

is  given  by  the  teeth 


82 


THE     TEETH     AT     VARIOUS     AGES. 


The  calf,  at  birth,  will  usually  have  two  incisor  or  front 
teeth  :  in  some  cases  just  appearing  through  the  gums  ; 
in  others,  fully  set,  varying  as  the  cow  falls  short  or 
exceeds  her  regular  time  of  calving.  If  she  overruns 
several  days,  the  teeth  will  have  set  and  attained  con- 
siderable size,  as  appears  in  Fig.  15.  During  the  sec- 
ond week,  a  tooth  will  usually  be  added  on  each  side, 
and  the  mouth  will  generally  appear  as  in  Fig.  16 ;  and, 
before  the  end  of  the  third  week,  the  animal  will  gener- 
ally have  six  incisor  teeth,  as  shown  in  Fig.  17  ;  and 
in  a  week  from  that  time  the  full  number  of  incisors 
will  have  appeared,  as  seen  in  Fig.  18. 


Fig.  17.    Third  week. 


Fig.  18.     Month. 


These  teeth  are  temporary,  and  are  often  called  milk- 
teeth.  Their  edge  is  very  sharp;  and,  as  the  animal 
begins  to  live  upon  more  solid  food,  this  edge  becomes 
worn,  showing  the  bony  part  of  the  tooth  beneath,  and 
indicates,  with  considerable  precision,  the  length  of 
time  they  have  been  used.  The  centre  or  oldest  teeth 
show  the  marks  of  age  first,  and  often  become  some- 
what worn  before  the  corner  teeth  appear.  At  eight 
weeks,  the  four  inner  teeth  are  nearlv  as  sharp  as  be- 


WEARING    AWAY. 


83 


tore.  They  appear  worn  not  so  much  on  the  outer 
edge  or  line  of  the  tooth,  as  inside  this  line  ;  but,  after 
this,  the  edge  begins  gradually  to  lose  its  sharpness, 
and  to  present  a  more  flattened  surface  ;  while  the  next 


Fig.  20.    Ten  months. 


Fig.  19.     Five  to  eight  months. 

outer  teeth  wear  down  like  the  four  central  ones  ;  and 
at  three  months  this  wearing  off  is  very  apparent,  till 
at  four  months  all  the  incisor  teeth  appear  worn,  but 


Fig.  21.    Twelve  months.  Fig.  22.    Fifteen  months. 

the  inner  ones  the  most.     Now  the  teeth  begin  slowly 
to  diminish  in  size  by  a  kind  of  contraction,  as  well  as 


84 


THE     PERMANENT    INCISORS 


wearing  down,  and  the  distance  apart  becomes  more  and 
more  apparent. 

From  the  fifth  to  the  eighth  month  the  inner  teeth 
will  usually  appear  as  in  Fig.  19  ;  and  at  ten  months 
this  change  shows  more  clearly,  as  in  Fig.  20,  and  the 
spaces  between  them  begin  to  show  very  plainly,  till 
at  a  year  old  they  ordinarily  present  the  appearance 
of  Fig.  21 ;  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  months  that  shown 
in  Fis:.  22,  where  the  corner  teeth  are  not  more  than 
half  the  original  size,  and  the  centre  ones  still  smaller. 

The  permanent  teeth  are  now  rapidly  growing,  and 
preparing  to  take  the  place  of  the  milk-teeth,  which 
are  gradually  absorbed  till  they  disappear,  or  are  pushed 
out  to  give  place  to  the  two  permanent  central  incisors, 
which,  at  a  year  and  a  half,  will  generally  present  the 
appearance  indicated  in  Fig.  23,  which  shows  the  inter- 
nal structure  of  the  lower  jaw  at  this  time,  with  the 
cells  of  the  teeth,  the  two  central  ones  protruding  into 
the    mouth,  the   two   next  pushing  up,   but   not  quite 


Fig.  23.  Eighteen  months. 


Fig.  24.    Two  years  past 


grown  to  the  surface,  with  the  third  pair  just  percep- 
tible. These  changes  require  time  ;  and  at  two  years 
past  the  jaw  will  usually  appear  as  in  Fig.  24,  where 


THE    UNCERTAIN    PERIOD. 


85 


four  of  the  permanent  central  incisors  are  seen.  After 
this  the  other  milk-teeth  decrease  rapidly,  but  are  slow 
to  disappear ;  and  at  three  years  old  the  third  pair  of 
permanent  teeth  are  but  formed,  as  in  Fig.  25  ;  and  at 
four  years  the  last  pair  of  incisors  will  be  up,  as  in 
Fig.  26  ;  but  the  outside  ones  are  not  yet  fully  grown, 


Fig.  25.    Three  years  past. 


Fig.  26.     Four  years  past. 


and  the  beast  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  full-mouthed  till 
the  age  of 'five  years.  But  before  this  age,  or  at  the  age 
of  four  years  the  two  inner  pairs  of  permanent  teeth 
are  beginning  to  wear  at  the  edges,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
26,  while  at  five  years  old  the  whole  set  becomes  some- 
what worn  down  at  the  top,  and  on  the  two  centre  ones 
a  darker  line  appears  in  the  middle,  along  a  line  of 
harder  bone,  as  appears  in  Fig.  27. 

Now  will  come  a  year  or  two,  and  sometimes  three, 
when  the  teeth  do  not  so  clearly  indicate  the  exact  age; 
and  the  judgment  must  be  guided  by  the  extent  to 
which  the  dark  middle  lines  are  worn.  This  will  de- 
pend somewhat  upon  the  exposure  and  feeding  of  the 
animal ;  but  at  seven  years  these  lines  extend  over 
all  the  teeth.  At  eight  years  another  change  begins, 
8 


86 


SOUNDNESS    OF    CONSTITUTION. 


which  cannot  be  mistaken.  A  kind  of  absorption  begins 
with  the  two  central  incisors,  slow,  at  first,  but  percep- 
tible, and  these  two  teeth  become  smaller  than  the  rest, 
while  the  dark  lines  are  worn  into  one  in  all  but  the 


Fig.  27.    Five  years  past. 


Fig.  28.    T^en  years  past. 


corner  teeth,  till  at  ten  years  four  of  the  central  incisors 
have  become  smaller  in  size,  with  a  smaller  and  fainter 
mark,  as  seen  in  Fig.  28.  At  eleven  the  six  inner  teeth 
are  smaller  than  the  corner  ones ;  and  at  twelve  all 
become  smaller  than  they  were,  while  the  dark  lines 
are  nearly  gone,  except  in  the  corner  teeth,  and  the 
inner  edge  is  worn  to  the  gum. 

After  being  satisfied  with  regard  to  the  age  of  a  cow, 
we  should  examine  her  with  reference  to  her  soundness 
of  constitution.  A  good  constitution  is  indicated  by 
large  lungs,  which  are  found  in  a  deep,  broad,  and  promi- 
nent chest,  broad  and  well-spread  ribs,  a  respiration  some- 
what slow  and  regular,  a  good  appetite,  and  if  in  milk  a 
strong  inclination  to  drink,  which  a  large  secretion  of 
milk  almost  invariably  stimulates.  In  such  cows  the 
digestive  organs  are  active  and  energetic,  and  they  make 
an  abundance  of  good  blood,  which  in  turn  stimulates 


DNION    TO    BE    RELIED     ON.  87 

the  activity  of  the  nervous  system,  and  furnishes  the 
milky  glands  with  the  means  of  abundant  secretion. 
Such  cows,  when  dry,  readily  take  on  fat.  When  activ- 
ity of  the  milk-glands  is  found  united  with  close  ribs, 
small  and  feeble  lungs,  and  a  slow  appetite,  often 
attended  by  great  thirst,  the  cow  will  generally  possess 
only  a  weak  and  feeble  constitution ;  and  if  the  milk  is 
plentiful,  it  will  generally  be  of  bad  quality,  while  the 
animal,  if  she  does  not  die  of  diseased  lungs,  will  not 
take  on  fat  readily  when  dry  and  fed. 

Other  external  marks  of  great  milkers  have  already 
been  given  in  part.  They  should  be  found  united,  as 
far  as  possible ;  for,  though  no  one  of  them,  however 
well  developed,  can  be  taken  as  a  sure  indication  of 
extraordinary  milking  powers,  several  of  them  united 
may,  as  a  general  rule,  be  implicitly  relied  on. 

In  order  to  have  no  superfluous  flesh,  the  cow  should 
have  a  small,  clean,  and  rather  long  head,  tapering  tow- 
ards the  muzzle.  A  cow  with  a  large,  coarse  head  will 
seldom  fatten  readily,  or  give  a  large  quantity  of  milk. 
A  coarse  head  increases  the  proportion  of  weight  of  the 
least  valuable  parts,  while  it  is  a  sure  indication  that  the 
whole  bony  structure  is  too  heavy.  The  mouth  should 
be  large  and  broad ;  the  eye  bright  and  sparkling,  but 
of  a  peculiar  placidness  of  expression,  with  no  indica- 
tion of  wildness,  but  rather  a  mild  and  feminine  look. 
These  points  will  indicate  gentleness  of  disposition. 
Such  cows  seem  to  like  to  be  milked,  are  fond  of 
being  caressed,  and  often  return  caresses.  The  horns 
should  be  small,  short,  tapering,  yellowish,  and  glisten- 
ing. The  neck  should  be  small,  thin,  and  tapering  tow- 
ards the  head,  but  thickening  when  it  approaches  the 
shoulder ;  the  dewlaps  small.  The  fore  quarters  should 
be  rather  small  when  compared  with  the  hind  quarters. 
The  form  of  the  barrel  will  be   large,  and   each  rib 


88  GOOD    SIGNS.  —  THE    MILK-VEINS. 

should  project  further  than  the  preceding  one,  up  to  the 
loins.  She  should  be  well  formed  across  the  hips  and 
in  the  rump. 

The  spine  or  back-bone  should  be  straight  and  long, 
rather  loosely  hung,  or  open  along  the  middle  part,  the 
result  of  the  distance  between  the  dorsal  vertebras, 
which  sometimes  causes  a  slight  depression,  or  sway 
back.  By  some  good  judges  this  mark  is  regarded  as 
of  great  importance,  especially  when  the  bones  of  the 
hind  quarters  are  also  rather  loosely  put  together,  leav- 
ing the  rump  of  great  width,  and  the  pelvis  large,  and 
the  organs  and  milk-vessels  lodged  in  the  cavities 
largely  developed.  The  skin  over  the  rump  should  be 
loose  and  flexible.  This  point  is  of  great  importance  ; 
and  as,  when  the  cow  is  in  low  condition,  or  very  poor. 
it  will  appear  somewhat  harder  and  closer  than  it  other- 
wise would,  some  practice  and  close  observation  are 
required  to  judge  well  of  this  mark.  The  skin,  indeed, 
all  over  the  body,  should  be  soft  and  mellow  to  the 
touch,  with  soft  and  glossy  hair.  The  tail,  if  thick  at 
the  setting  on,  should  taper  and  be  fine  below. 

But  the  udder  is  of  special  importance.  It  should  be 
large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  and  the  skin 
thin,  with  soft,  loose  folds  extending  well  back,  capable 
of  great  distension  when  filled,  but  shrinking  to  a  small 
compass  when  entirely  empty.  It  must  be  free  from 
lumps  in  every  part,  and  provided  with  four  teats  set 
well  apart,  and  of  medium  size.  Nor  are  the  milk-veins 
less  important  to  be  carefully  observed.  The  principal 
ones  under  the  belly  should  be  large  and  prominent, 
and  extend  forward  to  the  navel,  losing  themselves,  ap- 
parently, in  the  very  best  milkers,  in  a  large  cavity  in 
the  flesh,  into  which  the  end  of  the  finger  can  be  insert- 
ed ;  but,  when  the  cow  is  not  in  full  milk,  the  milk- 
vein,  at  other  times  very  prominent,  is  not  so  distinctly 


THE    NETWORK    OF    VEINS.  89 

traced ;  and  hence,  to  judge  of  its  size  when  the  cow  is 
dry,  or  nearly  so,  this  vein  may  be  pressed  near  its  end, 
or  at  its  entrance  into  the  bod}^,  when  it  will  immedi- 
ately fill  up  to  its  full  size.  This  vein  does  not  carry 
the  milk  to  the  udder,  as  some  suppose,  but  is  the  chan- 
nel by  which  the  blood  returns  ;  and  its  contents  consist 
of  the  refuse  of  the  secretion,  or  what  has  not  been 
taken  up  in  forming  milk.  There  are,  also,  veins  in  the 
udder,  and  the  perineum,  or  the  space  above  the  udder, 
and  between  that  and  the  buttocks,  which  it  is  of  spe- 
cial importance  to  observe.  These  veins  should  be 
largely  developed,  and  irregular  or  knotted,  especially 
those  of  the  udder.  They  may  be  seen  in  Figs.  29, 
30,  31,  &c.     They  are  largest  in  great,  milkers. 

The  knotted  veins  of  the  perineum,  extending  from 
above  downwards  in  a  winding  line,  are  not  readily 
seen  in  young  heifers,  and  are  very  difficult  to  find  in 
poor  cows,  or  cows  of  only  a  medium  quality.  They 
are  easily  found  in  very  good  milkers,  and,  if  not 
at  first  apparent,  they  are  made  so  by  pressing  upon 
them  at  the  base  of  the  perineum,  when  they  swell  up, 
and  send  the  blood  back  towards  the  vulva.  They  form 
a  kind  of  thick  network  under  the  skin  of  the  perineum, 
raising  it  up  somewhat,  in  some  cases  near  the  vulva, 
in  others  lower  down  and  nearer  to  the  udder.  It  is 
important  to  look  for  these  veins,  as  they  often  form  a 
very  important  guide,  and  by  some  they  would  be  con- 
sidered as  furnishing  the  surest  indications  of  the  milk- 
ing qualities  of  the  cow.  Their  full  development  almost 
always  indicates  an  abundant  secretion  of  milk;  but 
they  are  far  better  developed  after  the  cow  has  had  two 
or  three  calves,  when  two  or  three  years'  milking  has 
given  full  activity  to  the  milky  glands,  and  attracted  a 
large  flow  of  blood.  The  larger  and  more  prominent 
these  veins,  the  better.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  in 
8* 


90  uUENON'S    method. 

observing  them  some  regard  should  be  had  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  cow,  the  thickness  of  skin  and  fat  by  which 
they  may  be  surrounded,  and  the  general  activity  and 
food  of  the  animal.  Food  calculated  to  stimulate  the 
greatest  flow  of  milk  will  naturally  increase  these  veins, 
and  give  them  more  than  usual  prominence. 

We  come  now  to  an  examination  of  the  system  of 
Guenon,  whose  discovery,  whatever  may  be  said  of  it. 
has  proved  of  immense  importance  to  agriculture.  Gue- 
non  was  a  man  of  remarkable  practical  sagacity,  a  close 
observer  of  stock,  and  an  excellent  judge.  This  gave 
him  a  great  advantage  in  securing  the  respect  of  those 
with  whom  he  came  in  contact,  and  assisted  him  vastly 
in  introducing  his  ideas  to  the  knowledge  of  intelligent 
men.  Born  in  France,  in  the  vicinity  of  Bordeaux,  in 
humble  circumstances,  he  early  had  the  care  of  cows, 
and  spent  his  whole  life  with  them.  His  discovery,  for 
which  a  gold  medal  was  awarded  by  the  agricultural 
society  of  Bordeaux,  on  the  4th  of  July,  1837,  consisted 
in  the  connection  between  the  milking  qualities  of  the 
cow  and  certain  external  marks  on  the  udder,  and  on 
the  space  above  it,  called  the  perineum,  extending  to 
the  buttocks.  To  these  marks  he  gave  the  name  of 
milk-mirror,  or  escutcheon,  which  consists  in  certain 
perceptible  spots  rising  up  from  the  udder  in  different 
directions,  forms,  and  sizes,  on  which  the  hair  grows 
upwards,  whilst  the  hair  on  other  parts  of  the  body 
grows  downwards.  To  these  spots  various  names  have 
I  een  given,  according  to  their  size  and  position,  as  tufts, 
fringes,  figures  or  escutcheons,  which  last  is  the  most 
common  term  used.  The  reduction  of  these  marks  into 
a  system,  explaining  the  value  of  particular  forms  and 
sizes  of  the  milk-mirror,  belongs,  so  far  as  I  know,  ex- 
clusively to  Guenon,  though  the  connection  of  the  milk- 
ing qualities  of  the  cow  and  the  size  of  the  ovals  with 


PROVING    TOO    MUCH.  91 

downward-growing  hair  on  the  back  part  of*  the  udder 
above  the  teats  was  observed  and  known  in  Massachu- 
setts more  than  forty  years  ago,  and  some  of  the  old 
farmers  of  that  day  were  accustomed  to  say  that  when 
these  spots  were  large  and  well  developed  the  cow 
would  be  a  good  milker. 

Guenon  divided  the  milk-mirror  into  eight  classes, 
and  each  class  into  eight  orders,  making  in  all  no  less 
than  sixty-four  divisions,  which  he  afterwards  increased 
by  sub-divisions,  making  the  whole  system  complicated 
in  the  extreme,  especially  as  he  professed  to  be  able  to 
judge  with  accuracy,  by  means  of  the  milk-mirror,  not 
only  of  the  exact  quantity  a  cow  would  give,  but  also 
the  quality  of  the  milk  and  the  length  of  time  it  would 
continue.  He  tried  to  prove  too  much,  and  the  conse- 
quence was  that  he  was  himself  frequently  at  fault, 
notwithstanding  his  excellent  knowledge  of  other  gene- 
ral characteristics  of  milch  cows,  while  others,  of  less 
knowledge,  and  far  more  liable  to  err  in  judgment,  were 
inclined  to  view  the  whole  system  with  distrust. 

My  own  attention  was  called  to  Guenon's  method  of 
judging  of  cows  some  eight  or  ten  years  ago,  and  since 
that  time  I  have  examined  many  hundreds,  with  a 
view  to  ascertain  the  correctness  of  its  main  features, 
inquiring,  at  the  same  time,  after  the  views  and  opinions 
of  the  best  breeders  and  judges  of  stock,  with  regard 
to  their  experience  and  judgment  of  its  merits;  and  the 
result  of  my  observation  has  been,  that  cows  with  the 
most  perfectly-developed  milk-mirrors,  or  escutcheons, 
are,  with  rare  exceptions,  the  best  milkers  of  their 
breed,  and  that  cows  with  small  and  slightly-developed 
mirrors  are,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  bad  milkers. 

I  say  the  best  milkers  of  their  breed ;  for  I  do  not 
believe  that  precisely  the  same  sized  and  formed  milk- 
mirrors  on  a  Hereford  or  a  Devon,  and  an  Ayrshire  or  a 


92    REGARD  TO  THE  BREED.  —  EXCEPTIONS. 

native,  will  indicate  anything  like  the  same  or  equal 
milking  properties.  It  will  not  do,  in  my  opinion,  to 
disregard  the  general  and  well-known  characteristics  of 
the  breed,  and  rely  wholly  on  the  milk-mirror.  But  I 
think  it  may  be  safely  said  that,  as  a  general  rule  the 
best-marked  Hereford  will  turn  out  to  be  the  best 
milker  among  the  Here  fords,  all  of  which  are  poor 
milkers ;  the  best-marked  Devon  the  best  among  the 
Devons,  and  the  best-marked  Ayrshire  the  best  am:>ng 
the  Ayrshires  ;  that  is,  it  will  not  do  to  compare  two 
animals  of  entirely  distinct  breeds,  by  the  milk-mirrors 
alone,  without  regard  to  the  fixed  habits  and  education, 
so  to  speak,  of  the  breed  or  family  to  which  they 
belong. 

There  are  cows  with  very  small  mirrors,  which  are, 
nevertheless,  very  fair  in  the  yield  of  milk ;  and  among 
those  with  middling  quality  of  mirrors  instances  of 
rather  more  than  ordinary  milkers  often  occur,  while  at 
the  same  time  it  is  true  that  now  and  then  cases  occur 
where  the  very  best  marked  and  developed  mirrors  are 
found  on  very  poor  milkers.  I  once  owned  a  cow  of 
most  extraordinary  marks,  the  milk-mirror  extending 
out  broadly  upon  the  thighs,  and  rising  broad  and  very 
distinctly  marked  to  the  buttocks,  giving  every  indica 
tion,  to  good  judges,  of  being  as  great  a  milker  as  ever 
stood  over  a  pail ;  and  yet,  when  she  calved,  the  calf 
was  feeble  and  half  nourished,  and  she  actually  gave  too 
little  to  feed  it.  But  I  believe  that  this  exception,  and 
most  others  which  appear  to  be  direct  contradictions, 
could  be  clearly  explained  by  the  fact,  of  which  I  was 
not  aware  at  the  time,  that  she  had  been  largely  over- 
fed before  she  came  into  my  possession.  I  mention 
this  case  simply  to  show  how  impossible  it  is  to  esti- 
mate with  mathematical  accuracy  either  the  quantity; 
the   quality,   or  the   duration   of  the   milk,  since  it  is 


APPARENT     CONTRADICTION.  93 

affected  by  so  many  chance  circumstances,  which  cannot 
always  be  known  or  estimated  by  even  the  most  skilful 
judge;  as  the  food,  the  treatment,  the  temperament, 
accidental  diseases,  inflammation  of  the  udder,  premature 
calving,  the  climate  and  season,  the  manner  in  which 
she  has  been  milked,  and  a  thousand  other  things  which 
interrupt  or  influence  the  flow  of  milk,  without  materi- 
ally changing  the  size  or  the  shape  of  the  milk-mirror. 
M.  Magne,  wTho  appears  to  me  to  have  simplified  and 
explained  the  system  of  Guenon,  and  to  have  freed  it 
from  many  of  the  useless  details  with  which  it  is  en- 
cumbered in  the  original  work,  while  he  has  preserved 
all  that  is  of  practical  value,  very  justly  observes  that 
we  often  see  cows,  equally  well  formed,  with  precisely 
the  same  milk-mirror,  and  kept  in  the  same  circum- 
stances, yet  giving  neither  equal  quantities  nor  similar 
qualities  of  milk.  Nor  could  it  be  otherwise ;  for, 
assuming  a  particular  tuft  on  two  cows  to  be  of  equal 
value  at  birth,  it  could  not  be  the  same  in  the  course 
of  years,  since  innumerable  circumstances  occur  to 
change  the  activity  of  the  milky  glands  without  chang- 
ing the  form  or  size  of  the  tuft ;  or,  in  other  words,  the 
action  of  the  organs  depends  not  merely  on  their  size 
and  form,  but,  to  a  great  extent,  on  the  general  con- 
dition of  each  individual. 

To  give  a  more  distinct  idea  of  the  milk-mirror,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  refer  to  the  figures,  and  the  explana- 
tions of  these  I  translate  literally  from  the  little  work 
already  referred  to,  the  Choix  des  Vaches  Latter es,  or; 
the  Choice  of  Milch  Cows. 

The  different  forms  of  milk-mirrors  are  represented 
by  the  shaded  part  of  figures  29,  30,  31,  etc. ;  but  it  is 
necessary  to  premise  that  upon  the  cows  themselves 
they  are  always  partly  concealed  by  the  thighs,  the 
udder,  and  the  folds  of  the  skin,  which  are  not  shown, 


94  VARIATION    IN    SIZE. 

and  so  they  are  not  always  so  uniform  in  nature  as  they 
appear  in  the  cuts. 

Their  size  varies  as  the  skin  is  more  or  less  folded  or 
stretched,  while  we  have  supposed  in  the  figures  that 
the  skin  is  uniform  or  free  from  folds,  but  not  stretched 
out.  In  order  to  understand  the  differences  which  the 
milk-mirrors  present  in  respect  to  size,  according  to  the 
state  of  the  skin,  the  milk-mirror  is  shown  in  two  ways 
in  Figs.  52  and  53.  In  Fig.  53  the  proportions  are 
preserved  the  same  as  in  the  other  mirrors  represented, 
but  an  effort  is  made  to  represent  the  folds  of  the  skin ; 
while  in  Fig.  52  the  mirror  is  just  as  it  would  have 
been  had  the  folds  of  the  udder  been  smoothed  out,  and 
the  skin  between  the  udder  and  the  thighs  stretched 
out ;  or,  in  other  words,  as  if  the  skin,  covered  with  up 
growing  hair,  had  been  fully  extended. 

This  mirror,  but  little  developed,  just  as  shown  in 
Fig.  53,  was  observed  on  a  very  large  Norman  cow. 

It  is  usually  very  easy  to  distinguish  the  milk-mirrors 
by  the  upward  direction  of  the  hair  which  forms  them. 
They  are  sometimes  marked  by  a  line  of  bristly  hair 
growing  in  the  opposite  direction,  which  surrounds 
them,  forming  a  sort  of  outline  by  the  upward  and 
downward  growing  hair.  Yet,  when  the  hair  is  very 
fine  and  short,  mixed  with  longer  hairs,  and  the  skin 
much  folded,  and  the  udder  voluminous  and  pressed  by 
the  thighs,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  distinguish  the 
part  enclosed  between  the  udder  and  the  legs,  and 
examine  the  full  size  of  the  mirrors,  to  observe  them 
attentively,  and  to  place  the  legs  wide  apart,  and  to 
smooth  out  the  skin,  in  order  to  avoid  the  folds. 

The  mirrors  may  also  be  observed  by  holding  the 
back  of  the  hand  against  the  perineum,  and  drawing  it 
from  above  downwards,  when  the  nails  rubbing  against 


GUENON    EXPLAINED.  95 

the  up-growing  hair,  make  the  parts  covered  by  it  very 
perceptible. 

As  the  hair  of  the  milk-mirror  has  not  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  hair  which  surrounds  it,  it  may  often  be  dis- 
tinguished by  a  difference  in  the  shade  reflected  by  it. 
It  is  then  sufficient  to  place  it  properly  to  the  light  to 
see  the  difference  in  shade,  and  to  make  out  the  part 
covered  by  the  upward-growing  hair.  Most  frequently, 
however,  the  hair  of  the  milk-mirror  is  thin  and  fine, 
and  the  color  of  the  skin  can  easily  be  seen.  If  we 
trust  alone  to  the  eye,  we  shall  often  be  deceived. 
Thus,  in  Figs.  52  and  53,  the  shaded  part,  which 
extends  from  the  vulva  to  the  mirror  E,  represents  a 
strip  of  hair  of  a  brownish  tint,  which  covered  the  peri- 
neum, and  which  might  easily  have  been  taken  for  a 
part  of  the  milk-mirror. 

In  some  countries  cattle-dealers  shave  the  back  part 
of  the  cows.  Just  after  this  operation  the  mirrors  can 
neither  be  seen  nor  felt ;  but  this  inconvenience  ceases 
in  a  few  days.  It  may  be  added  that  the  shaving, 
designed,  as  the  dealers  say,  to  beautify  the  cow,  is 
generally  intended  simply  to  destroy  the  milk-mirror, 
and  to  deprive  buyers  of  one  means  of  judging  of  the 
milking  qualities  of  the  cows. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  add  that  the  cows  most  care- 
fully shaven  are  those  which  are  badly  marked,  and  that 
it  is  prudent  to  take  it  for  granted  that  cows  so  shorn 
are  bad  milkers. 

Milk-mirrors  vary  in  position,  extent,  and  the  figure 
they  represent.  They  may  be  divided,  according  to 
their  position,  into  mirrors  or  escutcheons,  properly  so 
called,  or  into  lower  and  upper  tufts,  or  escutcheons.  The 
latter  are  very  small  in  comparison  with  the  former,  and 
are  situated  in  close  proximity  to  the  vulva,  as  seen  at  S 
in  Figs.  38,  39,  40,  etc.     They  are  very  common  on  cows 


96  GUEXON    EXPLAINED. 

of  bad  milking  races,  but  are  very  rarely  seen  on  the 
best  milch  cows.  They  consist  of  one  or  two  ovals,  or 
small  bands  of  up-growing  hair,  and  serve  to  indicate 
the  continuance  of  the  flow  of  milk.  The  period  is 
short  in  proportion  as  the  tufts  are  large.  They  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  escutcheon  proper,  which 
is  often  extended  up  to  the  vulva.  They  are  separated 
from  it  by  bands  of  hair,  more  or  less  large,  as  in  Figs. 
40,  42,  &c. 

The  mirrors  shown  in  Figs.  38  to  42,  and  29  to  35, 
&c,  exist,  more  or  less  developed,  on  nearly  all  cows, 
and  indicate  the  quantity  of  milk,  which  will  be  in  pro- 
portion to  their  size.  Sometimes  they  form  only  a 
small  plate  on  the  posterior  surface  of  the  udder,  as  in 
Fig.  49.  In  other  cases  they  cover  the  udder,  the  inner 
surface  of  the  legs  and  the  thighs,  the  perineum,  and 
a  part  of  the  buttocks,  as  in  Figs.  29,  30,  31,  &c. 

Two  parts  may  be  distinguished  in  the  lower  tufts  : 
one  situated  on  the  udder,  the  legs,  and  the  thighs,  as  at 
M  M,  Fig.  30 ;  and  the  other  on  the  perineum,  extend- 
ing sometimes  more  or  less  out  upon  the  thighs,  as  at 
P  P,  in  the  same  figure. 

The  first  part  is  represented  by  itself,  in  Figs.  37  and 
49.  We  shall  call  the  former  mammary,  and  the  latter 
perinean.  The  former  is  sometimes  large,  extending 
over  the  milky  glands,  the  thighs,  and  the  legs,  as  shown 
in  Figs.  29  to  37;  and  sometimes  circumscribed,  or  more 
or  less  checked  over  with  tufts  of  downward-growing 
hair,  as  in  Figs.  43  to  52.  It  is  sometimes  terminated 
towards  the  upper  part  of  the  udder  by  a  horizontal 
line,  straight,  as  in  Fig.  37,  or  angular,  as  in  Fig.  49 ; 
but  more  frequently  it  continues  without  interruption 
over  the  perineum,  and  constitutes  the  perinean  part. 

This  presents  a  large  band,  Fig.  30,  straight,  as  in 
Fig.  43,  and  bounded  on  the  sides  by  two  parallel  lines, 


FORMS    OF    THE    MILK-MIRROR. 


97 


K§.30. 

4l 


98  GUENON    EXPLAINED. 

as  seen  in  the  same  figures,  or  by  curved  lines,  as  in  Fig. 
34.  It  sometimes  rises  scarcely  a  fourth  part  up  the 
perineum,  as  in  Fig.  38  ;  at  others,  it  reaches  or  passes 
beyond  that  part,  forming  a  straight  band,  as  in  Figs. 
35  and  43,  or  is  folded  into  squares,  as  in  Figs.  31  and  36, 
or  truncated,  Fig.  38,  or  terminated  by  one  or  several 
points,  Figs.  32,  33,  41,  50.  In  some  cows  this  band 
extends  as  far  as  the  base  of  the  vulva,  Figs.  40  and 
48 ;  in  others,  it  embraces  more  or  less  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  vulva,  Figs.  29,  30,  39,  and  47. 

Milk-mirrors  are  sometimes  symmetrical,  as  in  Figs. 
29,  30,  34,  35,  37,  and  38  ;  sometimes  without  sym- 
metry, as  in  Figs.  42,  45,  and  50.  When  there  is  a  great 
difference  in  the  extent  of  the  two  halves,  it  almost 
always  happens  that  the  teats  on  the  side  where  the 
mirror  is  best  developed  give,  as  we  shall  see,  more 
milk  than  those  of  the  opposite  side.  We  will  remark 
here  that  the  left  half  of  the  mirror  is  almost  always 
the  largest ;  and  so,  when  the  perinean  part  is  folded 
into  a  square,  it  is  on  this  side  of  the  body  that  it  un- 
folds, as  in  Figs.  31,  36,  and  42.  Of  three  thousand  cows 
in  Denmark,  M.  Andersen  found  only  a  single  one  whose 
escutcheon  varied  even  a  little  from  this  rule.  We  have 
observed  the  contrary  only  in  a  single  case,  and  that 
was  on  a  bull.  The  perinean  part  of  the  mirror 
formed  a  band  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
breadth,  irregular,  but  situated,  in  great  measure,  on 
the  right  side  of  the  body.  Stretching  towards  the 
upper  part  of  the  perineum,  it  formed  a  kind  of 
square,  with  a  small  projecting  point  on  the  right, 
Fig.  51. 

The  mirrors  having  a  value  in  proportion  to  the 
space  they  occupy,  it  is  of  great  importance  to  at- 
tend  to  all  the  rows  of  down-growing  hairs,  which 
diminish  its  extent  of  surface,  whether  these  tufts  are 


FORMS     OF    THE    MILK-MIRROR. 


99 


Tig.  35. 


Tig  •  37 


100       REAL  EXTENT  OF  THE  MIRROR. 

in  the  midst  of  the  mirror,  Figs.  45,  46,  and  47,  or  form 
indentations  on  its  edges,  as  in  Figs.  42,  44,  45,  46, 
and  48. 

These  indentations,  concealed  in  part  by  the  folds  of 
the  skin,  are  sometimes  seen  with  difficulty  ;  but  it  is 
important  to  take  them  into  account,  since  in  a  great 
many  cows  they  materially  lessen  the  size  of  the  mir- 
ror. We  often  find  cows  whose  milk-mirror  at  first 
sight  appears  very  large,  but  which  are  only  medium 
milkers;  and  it  will  usually  be  found  that  lateral  indent- 
ations greatly  diminish  the  surface  of  up-growing  hair. 
Many  errors  are  committed  in  estimating  the  value  of 
such  cows,  from  a  want  of  attention  to  the  real  extent 
of  the  milk-mirror. 

All  the  interruptions  in  the  surface  of  the  mirror 
indicate  a  diminution  of  the  quantity  of  milk,  with  the 
exception,  however,  of  small  oval  or  elliptical  plates 
which  are  found  in  the  mirror,  on  the  back  part  of  the 
udders  of  the  best  cows,  as  in  Figs.  29,  30,  32,  34,  35, 
36,  and  40.  These  ovals  have  a  peculiar  tint,  which 
is  occasioned  by  the  downward  direction  of  the  haii 
which  forms  them.  In  the  best  cows  these  ovals  exist 
with  the  lower  mirrors  very  well  developed,  as  in  Figs. 
29,  30,  and  32. 

In  fine,  we  should  state  that  in  order  to  determine 
the  extent  and  significance  of  a  mirror  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  the  state  of  the  perineum  as  to  fat,  and  of 
the  fulness  of  the  udder.  In  a  fat  cow,  with  an  in- 
flated udder,  the  mirror  would  appear  larger  than  it 
really  is;  whilst  in  a  lean  cow,  with  a  loose  and  wrinkled 
udder,  it  appears  smaller.  Fat  will  cover  faults,  a  fact 
to  be  kept  in  mind  in  selecting  a  cow. 

In  bulls,  Fig.  51,  the  mirrors  present  the  same  pecu- 
liarities as  in  cows  ;  but  they  are  less  varied  in  their 
form,  and  especially  much  less  in  size.     This  will  easily 


FORMS    OF    THE    MILK-MIRROR. 


101 


rig.  40. 


Jig.  42. 


9* 


102  MILK-MIRRORS    ON    CALVES. 

be  understood  from  the  explanation  of  mirrors  giver 
on  a  preceding  page. 

In  calves  the  mirrors  show  the  shapes  they  are  after- 
wards to  have,  only  they  are  more  contracted,  because 
the  parts  which  they  cover  are  but  slightly  developed. 
They  are  easily  seen  after  birth ;  but  the  hair  which 
then  covers  them  is  long,  coarse,  and  stiff;  and  when 
this  hair  falls  off,  the  calf's  mirror  will  resemble  that  of 
the  cow,  but  be  of  less  size. 

With  calves,  however,  it  should  be  stated,  in  addition 
to  what  has  already  been  said,  that  the  milk-mirrors  are 
more  distinctly  recognized  on  those  from  cows  that  are 
well  kept,  and  that  they  will  generally  be  fully  devel- 
oped at  two  years  old.  Some  changes  take  place  in 
the  course  of  years,  but  the  outlines  of  the  mirror 
appear  prominent  at  the  time  of  advanced  pregnancy, 
or,  in  the  case  of  cows  giving  milk,  at  the  times  when 
the  udder  is  more  distended  with  milk  than  at  others. 

The  classification  adopted  by  Magne  appears  still 
further  to  simplify  the  whole  method,  and  to  bring  it 
within  the  easy  reach  and  comprehension  of  every  one 
who  will  examine  the  figures  and  the  explanations  con- 
nected with  them.  He  divides  cows,  according  to  the 
quantity  they  give,  into  four  classes  :  First,  the  very 
good;  second,  the  good;  third,  the  medium;  and 
fourth,  the  bad. 

In  the  first  class  he  places  cows  both  parts  of  whose 
milk-mirror,  the  mammary  and  the  perinean,  are  large, 
continuous,  uniform,  covering  at  least  a  great  part  of 
the  perineum,  the  udder,  the  inner  surface  of  the 
thighs,  and  extending  more  or  less  out  upon  the  legs 
as  in  Figs.  29  to  33,  with  no  interruptions,  or,  if  any 
small  ones,  oval  in  form,  and  situated  on  the  posterioi 
face  of  the  udder,  Figs.  29,  30,  and  32. 

Such   mirrors  are  found  on  most  very  good  cows 


FORMS     OF    THE    MILK-MIRROR. 


103 


Fig.  45. 


Hg.  47. 


104  FIRST-RATE    COWS. 

but  may  also  be  found  on  cows  which  can  scarcely  be 
called  good,  and  which  should  be  ranked  in  the  next 
class.  But  cows,  whether  having  very  well-developed 
mirrors  or  not,  may  be  reckoned  as  very  good,  and  as 
giving  as  much  milk  as  is  to  be  expected  from  their 
size,  feed,  and  the  hygienic  circumstances  in  which  they 
are  kept,  if  they  present  the  following  characteristics: 

Veins  of  the  perineum  large,  as  if  swollen,  and  visible 
on  the  exterior,  as  in  Figs.  29 — 32,  or  which  can  be 
easily  made  to  appear  by  pressing  upon  the  base  of  the 
perineum  :  veins  of  the  udder  large  and  knotted,  milk- 
veins  large,  often  double,  equal  on  both  sides,  and 
forming  zig-zags  under  the  belly. 

To  the  signs  furnished  by  the  veins  and  by  the  mir- 
ror may  be  added  also  the  following  marks  :  A  uniform, 
very  large  and  yielding  udder,  shrinking  much  in  milk- 
ing, and  covered  with  soft  skin  and  fine  hair;  good 
constitution,  full  chest,  regular  appetite,  and  great  pro- 
pensity to  drink.  Cows  rather  inclining  to  be  poor  than 
fat.  Soft,  yielding  skin,  short,  fine  hair,  small  head,  fine 
horns,  bright,  sparkling  eye,  mild  expression,  feminine 
look,  with  a  fine  neck. 

Cows  of  this  first  class  are  very  rare.  They  give, 
even  when  small  in  size,  from  ten  to  fourteen  quarts  of 
milk  a  day,  and  the  largest  sized  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-six  quarts  a  day,  and  even  more.  Just  after 
calving,  if  arrived  at  maturity  and  fed  with  good, 
wholesome,  moist  food  in  sufficient  quantity  and 
quality,  adapted  to  promote  the  secretion  of  milk, 
they  can  give  about  a  pint  of  milk  for  every  ten 
ounces  of  hay,  or  its  equivalent,  which  they  eat. 

They  continue  in  milk  for  a  long  period.  The  best 
never  go  dry,  and  may  be  milked  even  up  to  the  time 
of  calving,  giving  from  eight  to  twelve  quarts  of  milk 
a   day.     The    Dutch  cow,   Fig.    54,  was  giving   daily 


FORMS    OP    THE    MILK-MIRROR, 


105 


T%5£. 


Eg.53. 


106  SECOND-RATE    COWS. 

twenty-two  quarts  of  milk,  a  year  after  calving.  But 
even  the  best  cows  often  fall  short  of  the  quantity  of 
milk  they  are  able  to  give,  from  being  fed  on  food  that 
is  too  dry,  or  not  sufficiently  varied,  or  not  rich  enough 
in  nutritive  qualities,  or  deficient  in  quantity. 

The  second  class  is  that  of  good  cows ;  and  to  this 
belong  the  best  commonly  found  in  the  market  and 
among  the  cow-feeders  of  cities. 

They  have  the  mammary  part  of  the  milk-mirror 
well  developed,  but  the  perinean  part  contracted  or 
wholly  wanting,  as  in  Figs.  34  and  37  ;  or  both  parts  of 
the  mirror  are  moderately  developed,  or  slightly 
indented,  as  Figs.  35  and  36.  Figs.  38,  39,  40,  and  41, 
belong  also  to  this  class,  in  the  lower  part ;  but  they 
denote  cows  which,  as  the  upper  mirrors,  s  s  s,  indi- 
cate, dry  up  sooner  when  again  in  calf. 

These  marks,  though  often  seen  on  many  good  cows, 
should  be  considered  as  certain  only  when  the  veins  of 
the  perineum  form,  under  the  skin,  a  kind  of  network, 
which,  without  being  very  apparent,  may  be  felt  by  a 
pressure  on  them ;  when  the  milk-veins  on  the  belly  are 
well  developed,  though  less  knotted  and  less  prominent 
than  in  cows  of  the  first  class ;  in  fine,  when  the  udder 
is  well  developed,  and  presents  veins  which  are  suffi- 
ciently numerous,  though  not  very  large. 

It  is  necessary,  then,  as  in  the  preceding  class,  to 
have  a  mistrust  of  cows  in  which  the  mirror  is  not 
accompanied  by  large  veins.  This  remark  applies 
especially  to  cows  which  have  had  several  calves,  and 
are  in  full  milk.  They  are  medium  or  bad,  let  the  milk- 
mirror  be  what  it  may,  if  the  veins  of  the  belly  are  not 
large,  and  those  of  the  udder  apparent. 

The  general  characteristics  which  depend  on  form 
and  constitution  combine  less  than  in  cows  of  the  pre- 


A    COW    OF    THE    FIRST    CLASS. 


107 


Fig.  54.    A  Good  Milch  Cow. 

ceding  class  the  marks  of  good  health  and  excellent 
constitution  with  those  of  a  gentle  and  feminine  look. 

Small  cows  of  this  class  give  from  seven  to  ten  or 
eleven  quarts  of  milk  a  day,  and  the  largest  from 
thirteen  to  seventeen  quarts.  They  can  be  made  to 
give  three  fourths  of  a  pint  of  milk,  just  after  calvmg, 


108  THIRD     CLASS.  —  BAD     COWS. 

for  every  ten  ounces  of  hay  consumed,  if  well  cared  for, 
and  fed  in  a  manner  favorable  to  the  secretion  of  milk. 

They  hold  out  long  in  milk  when  they  have  no  upper 
mirrors  or  tufts.  At  seven  or  eight  months  in  calf, 
they  may  give  from  five  to  eight  quarts  a  day. 

The  third  class  consists  of  middling  cows.  When  the 
milk-mirror  really  presents  only  the  lower  or  mammary 
part  slightly  developed  or  indented,  and  the  perinean 
part  contracted,  narrow,  and  irregular,  as  in  Figs.  42 
to  47,  the  cows  are  middling.  The  udder  is  slightly 
developed  or  hard,  and  shrinks  very  little  after  milking. 
The  veins  of  the  perineum  are  not  apparent,  and  those 
which  run  along  the  lower  sides  of  the  abdomen  are 
small,  straight,  and  sometimes  unequal.  In  this  case 
the  mirror  is  not  symmetrical,  and  the  cow  gives  more 
milk  on  the  side  where  the  vein  is  largest. 

These  cows  often  have  large  heads,  and  a  thick  and 
hard  skin.  Being  ordinarily  in  good  condition,  and 
even  fat,  they  are  beautiful  to  look  at,  and  seem  to  be 
well  formed.  Many  of  them  are  nervous  and  restive, 
and  not  easily  approached. 

Gows  of  this  class  give,  according  to  size,  from  three 
or  four  to  ten  quarts  of  milk.  They  very  rarely  give, 
even  in  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  half  a  pint 
for  every  ten  ounces  of  hay  which  they  consume. 

The  milk  diminishes  rapidly,  and  dries  up  wholly  the 
fourth  or  fifth  month  in  calf. 

The  fourth  class  is  composed  of  bad  cows.  As  they 
are  ordinarily  in  good  condition,  these  cows  are  often  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  herd  and  in  the  markets.  They 
have  fleshy  thighs,  thick  and  hard  skin,  a  large  and 
coarse  neck  and  head,  and  horns  large  at  the  base. 

The  udder  is  hard,  small,  and  fleshy,  with  a  skin 
covered  with  long,  rough  hair.  No  veins  are  to  be 
seen  either  on  the  perineum  or  the  udder,  while  those 


ANOTHER    CLASSIFICATION.  109 

of  the  belly  are  very  slightly  developed,  and  the  mir- 
rors are  ordinarily  small,  as  in  Figs.  48,  49,  and  50. 

With  these  characteristics,  cows  give  only  a  few 
quarts  of  milk  a  day,  and  dry  up  a  short  time  after 
calving.  Some  such  can  scarcely  nourish  their  calves, 
even  when  they  are  well  cared  for  and  well  fed. 

Sickly  habits,  chronic  affections  of  the  digestive 
organs,  the  chest,  the  womb,  and  the  lacteal  system, 
sometimes  greatly  affect  the  milk  secretions,  and  cause 
cows  troubled  with  them  to  fall  from  the  first  or 
second  to  the  third,  and  sometimes  to  the  fourth  class. 

The  above  classification  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
Pabst,  a  German  farmer  of  large  experience  and  obser- 
vation of  stock,  who,  with  a  view  to  simplify  the 
method  of  Guenon,  and  render  it  of  greater  practical 
value  to  the  farmer,  made  five  divisions  or  classes,  con- 
sisting of,  1st,  Very  good  or  extraordinary ;  2d,  Good 
or  good  middling;  3d,  Middling  and  little  below  mid- 
dling ;  4th,  Small ;  and,  5th,  Very  bad  milkers. 

These  classifications,  adopted  by  Magne,  Pabst,  and 
other  good  breeders  and  judges  of  cows,  appear  to  me 
to  be  far  more  simple  and  satisfactory  than  the  more 
extended  and  complicated  classification  of  Guenon  him- 
self. Without  pretending  to  be  able  to  judge  with  any 
accuracy  of  the  quantity,  the  quality,  or  the  duration, 
which  any  particular  size  or  form  of  the  mirror  will 
indicate,  they  give  to  Guenon  the  full  credit  of  his 
important  discovery  of  the  escutcheon,  or  milk-mirror, 
as  a  new  and  very  valuable  element  in  forming  our 
judgment  of  the  milking  qualities  of  a  cow  ;  and  simply 
assert,  with  respect  to  the  duration  or  continuance  of 
the  flow  of  milk,  that  the  mirror  that  indicates  the 
greatest  quantity  will  also  indicate  the  longest  dura- 
tion. The  mirror  forms,  in  other  words,  an  important 
additional  mark  or  point  for  distinguishing  good  milk- 
10 


110  SPECIAL     CASES. 

ers ;  and  it  is  safe  to  lay  it  down  as  a  rule  that,  in  the 
selection  of  milch  cows,  as  well  as  in  the  choice  of 
young  animals  as  breeders,  we  should,  by  all  means, 
examine  and  consider  the  milk-mirror,  but  not  limit  or 
confine  ourselves  exclusively  to  it,  and  that  other  and 
long-known  marks  should  be  equally  regarded. 

But  there  are  cases  where  a  knowledge  and  careful 
examination  of  the  form  and  size  of  the  mirror  becomes 
of  the  greatest  importance.  It  is  well  known  that  cer- 
tain signs  or  marks  of  great  milkers  are  developed  only 
as  the  capacities  of  the  animal  herself  are  fully  and 
completely  developed  by  age.  The  milk-veins,  for 
instance,  are  never  so  large  and  prominent  in  heifers 
and  young  cows  as  in  old  ones,  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  udder,  and  the  veins  of  the  udder  and  per- 
ineum ;  all  of  which  it  is  of  great  importance  to  observe 
in  the  selection  of  milch  cows.  Those  signs,  then,  which 
in  cows  arrived  at  maturity  are  almost  sufficient  in 
themselves  to  warrant  a  conclusion  as  to  their  merits 
as  milkers,  are,  to  a  great  extent,  wanting  in  younger 
animals,  and  altogether  in  calves,  of  which  there  is 
often  doubt  whether  they  shall  be  raised ;  and  here  a 
knowledge  of  the  form  of  the  mirror  is  of  immense 
advantage,  since  it  gives,  at  the  outset,  and  before  any 
expense  is  incurred,  a  somewhat  reliable  means  of 
judging  of  the  future  milking  capacities  of  the  animal 
or,  if  a  male,  of  the  probability  of  his  transmitting 
milking  qualities  to  his  offspring. 

It  will  be  seen,  from  an  examination  of  the  points  oi 
a  good  milch  cow,  that,  though  the  same  marks  which 
indicate  the  greatest  milking  qualities  may  not  indicate 
any  great  aptitude  to  fatten,  yet  that  the  signs  which 
indicate  good  fattening  qualities  are  included  among 
the  signs  favorable  to  the  production  of  milk,  such  as 
soundness  of  constitution,  indicated  by  good  organs  of 


BUYING    DAJRY    STOCK.  HI 

digestion  and  respiration,  fineness  and  mellowness  of 
the  skin  and  hair,  quietness  of  disposition,  which 
inclines  the  animal  to  rest  and  lie  down  in  chewing  the 
cud,  and  other  marks  which  are  relied  on  by  graziers 
in  selecting  animals  to  fatten. 

In  buying  dairy  stock  the  farmer  generally  finds  it 
for  his  interest  to  select  young  heifers.  They  give 
the  promise  of  longer  usefulness.  But  it  is  often  the 
case  that  older  cows  are  selected  with  the  design  of 
using  them  for  the  dairy  for  a  limited  period,  and  then 
feeding  them  for  the  butcher.  In  either  case,  it  is  ad- 
visable, as  a  rule,  to  choose  animals  in  low  or  medium 
condition.  The  farmer  cannot  ordinarily  afford  to  buy 
fat ;  it  is  more  properly  his  business  to  make  it,  and  to 
have  it  to  sell.  Good  and  well-marked  cows  in  poor 
condition  will  rapidly  gain  in  flesh  and  products  when 
removed  to  better  pastures  and  higher  keeping,  and 
they  cost  less  in  the  original  purchase. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  regard  should  be  had  to 
the  quality  of  the  pasturage  and  keeping  which  a  cow  has 
previously  had,  as  compared  with  that  to  which  she  is  to 
be  subjected.    The  size  of  the  animal  should  also  be  con- 
sidered with  reference  to  the  fertility  of  the  pastures 
into  which  she  is  to   be   put.     Small  or  medium-sized 
animals  accommodate  themselves  to  ordinary  pastures 
far  better  than  large  ones.     Where  a  very  large  cow 
will  do  well,  two  small  ones  will   usually  do   better  ; 
while  the  large  animal  might  fail  entirely  where  two 
small  ones  would   do  well.     It  is   better  to  have  the 
whole  herd,  so  far  as  may  be,  uniform  in  size  ;  for,  if 
they  vary  greatly,  some  may  get  more  than  they  need, 
and  others  will  not  have  enough.     This,  however,  can 
not  always  be  brought  about. 


112 


A    GOOD     DAIRY    COW 


CHAPTER    IV. 

FEEDING     AND    MANAGEMENT     OF    DAIRY    COWS. 

No  branch  of  dairy  farming  can  compare  in  import- 
ance with  the  management  of  cows.  The  highest 
success  will  depend  very  much  upon  it,  whatever  breed 
be  selected,  and  whatever  amount  of  care  and  attention 
be  given  to  the  points  of  the  animals ;  for  experience 
will  show  that  very  little  milk  comes  out  of  the  bag 
that  is  not  first  put  into  the  throat.  It  is  poor  econ- 
omy, therefore,  to  attempt  to  keep  too  many  cows  for 
the  amount  of  feed  we  have ;  for  it  will  generally  be 
found  that  one  good  cow  well  bred  and  well  fed  will 
yield  as  much  as  two  ordinary  cows  kept  in  the  ordi- 
nary way,  while  a  saving  is  effected  both  in  labor  and 
room  required,  and  in  the  risks  on  the  capital  invested. 
If  the  larger  number  on  poorer  feed  is  urged  for  the 
sake  of  the  manure,  which  is  the  only  ground  on  which 
it  can  be  put,  it  is  sufficient  to  remark  that  it  is  a  very 
expensive  way  of  making  manure.  It  is  not  too  much 
to  say  that  a  proper  regard  to  profit  and  economy 
would  require  many  an  American  farmer  to  sell  off 
nearly  half  his  cows,  and  to  feed  the  whole  of  his  hay 
and  roots  hitherto  used  into  the  remainder. 

A  certain   German  farmer  was  visited,  one  day,  by 

some  Swiss  from  over  the  border,  who  desired  to  buy 

of  him  all  the  milk  of  his  cows  for  the  purpose  of 

making   cheese.     Not  being  able  to  agree   upon   the 

10*  8 


114  CAUSES    AND    EFFECTS. 

terms,  he  finally  proposed  to  let  them  take  the  entire 
charge  of  his  cows,  and  agreed  to  furnish  feed  amply 
sufficient,  the  Swiss  assuming  the  whole  care  of  feeding 
it  out,  and  paying  a  fixed  price  by  measure  for  all  the 
milk.  "  I  found  myself,  at  once,"  says  he,  "  under  the 
necessity  of  selling  almost  half  my  cows,  because  the 
Swiss  required  nearly  double  the  quantity  of  fodder 
which  the  cows  had  previously  had,  and  I  was  well  sat- 
isfied that  all  the  produce  I  could  raise  on  my  farm 
would  be  far  from  sufficient  to  feed  in  that  way  the 
number  of  cows  I  had  kept.  I  was  in  despair  at  find- 
ing them  using  such  a  quantity  of  the  best  quality  of 
feed,  though  it  was  according  to  the  strict  letter  of  the 
contract,  especially  as  I  knew  that  I  had  given  my  cows 
rather  more  than  the  quantity  of  food  recommended  by 
men  in  whom  I  had  perfect  confidence.  Thus,  while 
Thaet  names  twenty-three  pounds  of  hay,  or  its  equiv- 
alent, as  food  sufficient  for  a  good-sized  cow,  I  gave  mine 
full  twenty-seven  pounds.  But,  if  the  change  effected 
in  the  management  of  my  cows  was  great,  the  result 
was  still  more  striking.  The  quantity  of  milk  kept 
increasing,  and  it  reached  the  highest  point  when  the 
cows  attained  the  condition  of  the  fat  kine  of  Pharaoh's 
dream.  The  quantity  of  milk  became  double,  triple, 
and  even  quadruple,  what  it  had  been  before  ;  so  that, 
if  I  should  compare  the  product  with  that  previously 
obtained,  a  hundred  pounds  of  hay  produced  three 
times  more  milk  than  it  had  produced  with  my  old 
mode  of  feeding.  Such  results,  of  course,  attracted  my 
attention  to  this  branch  of  my  farming.  It  became  a 
matter  of  pleasure;  and  my  observations  were  followed 
up  with  great  care,  and  during  several  years  I  devoted 
a  large  part  of  my  time  to  it.  I  even  went  so  far  as  to 
procure  scales  for  weighing  the  food  and  the  animals,  in 
order  to  establish  exact  data  on  the  most  positive  basis." 


a  farmer's   conclusions.  115 

The  conclusions  to  which  he  arrived  were,  that  an 
animal,  to  be  fully  fed  and  satisfied,  requires  a  quantity 
of  food  in  proportion  to  its  live  weight ;  that  no  feed 
could  be  complete  that  did  not  contain  a  sufficient 
amount  of  nutritive  elements ;  hay,  for  example,  being 
more  nutritive  than  straw,  and  grains  than  roots.  He 
found,  too,  that  the  food  must  possess  a  bulk  sufficient 
to  fill  up  to  a  certain  degree  the  organs  of  digestion  or 
the  stomach ;  and  that,  to  receive  the  full  benefit  of 
its  food,  the  animal  must  be  wholly  satisfied,  as,  if  the 
stomach  is  not  sufficiently  distended,  the  food  cannot 
be  properly  digested,  and  of  course  many  of  the  nutri- 
tive principles  it  contains  would  not  be  perfectly  assim- 
ilated. An  animal  regularly  fed  eats  till  it  is  satisfied, 
and  no  more  than  is  requisite.  A  part  of  the  nutritive 
elements  in  hay  and  other  forage-plants  is  needed  to 
keep  an  animal  on  its  feet,  —  that  is,  to  keep  up  its  con- 
dition,—  and  if  the  nutrition  of  its  food  is  not  sufficient 
for  this  the  weight  decreases,  and  if  it  is  more  than 
sufficient  the  weight  increases,  or  else  this  excess  is 
consumed  in  the  production  of  milk  or  in  labor.  About 
one  sixtieth  of  their  live  weight  in  hay,  or  its  equiva- 
lent, will  keep  horned  cattle  on  their  feet ;  but,  in  order 
to  be  completely  nourished,  they  require  about  one 
thirtieth  in  dry  substances,  and  four  thirtieths  in  water, 
or  other  liquid  contained  in  their  food.  The  excess  of 
nutritive  food  over  and  above  what  is  required  to  sus- 
tain life  will  go  in  milch  cows  generally-  to  the  produc- 
tion of  milk,  or  to  the  growth  of  the  foetus,  but  not  in 
all  cows  to  an  equal  extent ;  the  tendency  to  the  secre- 
tion of  milk  being  far  more  developed  in  some  than  in 
others. 

With  regard  to  the  consumption  of  food  in  propor- 
tion to  the  live  weight  of  the  animal,  however  far  it 
may  apply  as  a  general    principle,  it  should,  I  think. 


116  NUTRITIVE    ELEMENTS    OF    FOOD. 

be  taken  with  some  qualifications  The  proportion  is 
probably  not  uniform  as  applied  to  all  breeds  indiscrim- 
inately, though  it  may  be  more  so  as  applied  to  animals 
of  the  same  breed.  Bakewell's  idea  was  that  the  quan- 
tity of  food  required  depended  much  on  the  shape  of 
the  barrel ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  an  animal  of  a 
close,  compact,  well-rounded  barrel  will  consume  lese 
than  one  of  an  opposite  make. 

The  variations  in  the  yield  of  milch  cows  are  caused 
more  by  the  variations  in  the  nutritive  elements  of  their 
food  than  by  a  change  of  the  form  in  which  it  is  given. 
"  A  cow, kept  through  the  winter  on  mere  straw,"  says  a 
practical  writer  on  this  subject,  "  will  cease  to  give 
milk;  and,  when  fed  in  spring  on  green  forage,  will  give 
a  fair  quantity  of  milk.  But  she  owes  the  cessation 
and  restoration  of  the  secretion  to  respectively  the 
diminution  and  the  increase  of  her  nourishment,  and 
not  at  all  to  the  change  of  form,  or  of  outward  sub- 
stance, in  which  the  nourishment  is  administered.  Let 
cows  receive  through  winter  nearly  as  large  a  propor- 
tion of  nutritive  matter  as  is  contained  in  the  clover, 
lucerne,  and  fresh  grasses,  which  they  eat  in  summer, 
and,  no  matter  in  what  precise  substance  or  mixture 
that  matter  may  be  contained,  they  will  yield  a  winter's 
produce  of  milk  quite  as  rich  in  caseine  and  butyr- 
aceous  ingredients  as  the  summer's  produce,  and  far 
more  ample  in  quantity  than  almost  any  dairyman  with 
old-fashioned  notions  would  imagine  to  be  possible. 
The  great  practical  error  on  this  subject  consists  not 
in  giving  wrong  kinds  of  food,  but  in  not  so  propor- 
tioning and  preparing  it  as  to  render  an  average  ration 
of  it  equally  rich  in  the  elements  of  nutrition,  and  es- 
pecially in  nitrogenous  elements,  as  an  average  ration 
of  the  green  and  succulent  food  of  summer." 

We  keep  too  much  stock  for  the  quantity  of  good 


MOIST    FEED.-   DAIRYMAN'S    MOTTO.  117 

and  nutritious  food  which  we  have  for  it ;  and  the  con- 
sequence is  cows  are,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  poorly 
wintered,  and  come  out  in  the  spring  weakened,  if  not, 
indeed,  positively  diseased,  and  a  long  time  is  required 
to  bring  them  into  a  condition  to  yield  a  generous 
quantity  of  milk. 

It  is  a  hard  struggle  for  a  cow  reduced  in  flesh  and 
in  blood  to  fill  up  the  wasted  system  with  the  food 
which  would  otherwise  have  gone  to  the  secretion  of 
milk ;  but,  if  she  is  well  fed,  well  housed,  well  littered, 
and  well  supplied  with  pure,  fresh  water,  and  with 
roots,  or  other  moist  food,  and  properly  treated  to  the 
luxury  of  a  frequent  carding,  and  constant  kindness, 
she  comes  out  ready  to  commence  the  manufacture  of 
milk  under  favorable  circumstances. 

Keep  the  cows  constantly  in  good  condition,  ought, 
therefore,  to  be  the  motto  of  every  dairy  farmer,  posted 
up  over  the  barn-door,  and  over  the  stalls,  and  over  the 
milk-room,  and  repeated  to  the  boys  whenever  there  is 
danger  of  forgetting  it.  It  is  the  great  secret  of  suc- 
cess, and  the  difference  between  success  and  failure 
turns  upon  it.  Cows  in  milk  require  more  food  in  pro- 
portion to  their  size  and  weight  than  either  oxen  or 
young  cattle. 

In  order  to  keep  cows  in  milk  well  and  economically, 
regularity  is  next  in  importance  to  a  full  supply  of 
wholesome  and  nutritious  food.  The  healthy  animal 
stomach  is  a  very  nice  chronometer,  and  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  observe  regular  hours  in  feeding, 
cleaning,  and  milking.  This  is  a  point,  also,  in  which 
very  many  farmers  are  at  fault  —  feeding  whenever  it 
happens  to  be  convenient.  The  cattle  are  thus  kept  in 
a  restless  condition,  constantly  expecting  food  when 
the  keeper  enters  the  barn,  while,  if  regular  hours  are 
strictly  adhered  to,  they  know  exactly  when  they  are 


118  COURSE    OF    FEEDING. 

to  be  fed,  and  they  rest  quietly  till  the  time  arrives.  Go 
into  a  well-regulated  dairy  establishment  an  hour  before 
the  time  of  feeding,  and  scarcely  an  animal  will  rise  to 
its  feet;  while,  if  it  happens  to  be  the  hour  of  feeding, 
the  whole  herd  will  be  likely  to  rise  and  seize  their 
food  with  an  avidity  and  relish  not  to  be  mistaken. 

With  respect  to  the  exact  routine  to  be  pursued,  no 
rule  could  be  prescribed  which  would  apply  to  all  cases  ; 
and  each  individual  must  be  governed,  much  by  circum- 
stances, both  in  respect  to  the  particular  kinds  of  feed 
at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  and  the  system  of  feed- 
ing. I  have  found  in  my  own  practice,  and  in  the  prac- 
tice of  the  most  successful  dairymen,  that,  in  order  to 
encourage  the  largest  secretion  of  milk  in  stalled  cows, 
one  of  the  best  courses  is,  to  feed  in  the  morning, 
either  at  the  time  of  milking — which  I  prefer  —  or  imme- 
diately after,  with  cut  feed,  consisting  of  hay,  oats, 
millet,  or  corn-stalks,  mixed  with  shorts,  and  Indian,  lin- 
seed, or  cotton-seed  meal,  thoroughly  moistened  with 
water.  If  in  winter,  hot  or  warm  water  is  far  better 
than  cold.  If  given  at  milking-time,  the  cows  will  gen- 
erally give  down  the  milk  more  readily.  The  stalls  and 
mangers  ought  always  to  be  well  cleaned  out  first. 

Roots  and  long  hay  may  be  given  during  the  day;  and 
at  the  evening  milking,  or  directly  after,  another  gen- 
erous meal  of  cut  feed,  well  moistened  and  mixed, 
as  in  the  morning.  No  very  concentrated  food,  like 
grains  alone  or  oil-cakes,  should,  it  seems  to  me,  be  fed 
early  in  the  morning  on  an  empty  stomach,  though  it  is 
sanctioned  by  the  practice  in  the  London  milk-dairies. 
The  processes  of  digestion  go  on  best  when  the  stom- 
ach is  sufficiently  distended  ;  and  for  this  purpose  the 
bulk  of  food  is  almost  as  important  as  the  nutritive 
qualities.  The  flavor  of  some  roots,  as  cabbages  and 
turnips,  is  more  apt  to  be  imparted  to  the  flesh   and 


ECONOMY    IN    WARMTH.  119 

milk  when  fed  on  an  empty  stomach  than  otherwise. 
After  the  cows  have  been  milked,  and  have  finished 
their  cut  feed,  they  are  carded  and  curried  down,  in 
well-managed  dairies,  and  then  either  watered  in  the 
stall,  which  in  very  cold  or  stormy  weather  is  far  pref- 
erable, or  turned  out  to  water  in  the  yard.  When  they 
are  out,  if  they  are  let  out  at  all,  the  stables  are  put  in 
order ;  and,  after  tying  them  up,  they  are  fed  with  long 
hay,  and  left  to  themselves  till  the  time  of  next  feed- 
ing. This  may  consist  of  roots,  such  as  cabbages, 
beets,  carrots,  or  turnips,  sliced,  or  of  potatoes,  a  peck, 
or,  if  the  cows  are  very  large,  a  half-bushel  each,  and 
cut  feed  again  at  the  evening  milking,  as  in  the  morn- 
ing, after  which  water  in  the  stall,  if  possible. 

The  less  cows  are  exposed  to  the  cold  of  winter,  the 
better.  They  eat  less,  thrive  better,  and  give  more  milk, 
when  kept  housed  all  the  time,  than  when  exposed  to 
the  cold.  Caird  mentions  a  case  where  a  herd  of  cows, 
which  had  been  usually  supplied  from  troughs  and 
pipes  in  the  stalls,  were,  on  account  of  an  obstruction 
in  the  pipes,  obliged  to  be  turned  out  twice  a  day 
to  be  watered  in  the  yard.  The  quantity  of  milk 
instantly  decreased,  and  in  three  days  the  falling  off 
became  very  considerable.  After  the  pipes  were  mended, 
and  the  cows  again  watered  as  before,  in  their  stalls,  the 
flow  of  milk  returned.  This,  however,  will  be  gov- 
erned much  by  the  weather ;  for  in  very  mild,  warm 
days  it  may  be  judicious  not  only  to  let  them  out,  but 
to  allow  them  to  remain  out  for  a  short  time,  to  ex- 
ercise. 

Any  one  can  arrange  the  hour  for  the  several  process- 
es named  above,  to  suit  himself;  but,  when  once  fixed, 
let  it  be  rigidly  and  regularly  followed.  If  the  regular 
and  full  feeding  be  neglected  for  even  a  day,  the  yield 
of  milk  will  immediately  decline,  and  it  will  be  very 


120  REGULARITY.  —  CHANGE. 

difficult  to  restore  it.  It  may  safely  be  asserted,  as  the 
result  of  many  trials  and  long  practice,  that  a  larger 
flow  of  milk  follows  a  complete  system  of  regularity  in 
this  respect  than  from  a  higher  feeding  where  this  sys- 
tem is  not  adhered  to. 

One  prime  object  which  the  dairyman  should  keep 
constantly  in  view  is,  to  maintain  the  animal  in  a  sound 
and  healthy  condition.  Without  this,  no  profit  can  be 
expected  from  a  milch  cow  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time ;  and,  with  a  view  to  this,  there  should  be  an 
occasional  change  of  food.  But,  in  making  changes, 
great  care  is  required  to  supply  an  equal  amount  of 
nourishment,  or  the  cow  falls  off  in  flesh,  and  eventu- 
ally in  milk.  We  should  therefore  bear  in  mind  that 
the  food  consumed  goes  not  alone  to  the  secretion  of 
milk,  but  also  to  the  growth  and  maintenance  of  the 
bony  structure,  the  flesh,  the  blood,  the  fat,  the  skin, 
and  the  hair,  and  in  exhalations  from  the  body.  These 
parts  of  the  body  consist  of  different  organic  con- 
stituents. Some  are  rich  in  nitrogen,  as  the  fibrin  of  the 
blood,  albumen,  &c. ;  others  destitute  of  it,  as  fat ;  some 
abound  in  inorganic  salts,  phosphate  of  lime,  salts  of  pot- 
ash, &c.  To  explain  how  the  constant  waste  of  these 
substances  may  be  supplied,  Dr.  Voelcker  observes  that 
the  albumen,  gluten,  caseine,  and  other  nitrogenized 
principles  of  food,  supply  the  animal  with  materials 
required  for  the  formation  of  muscle  and  cartilage  ;  they 
,are,  therefore,  called  flesh-forming  principles. 

"Fats,  or  oily  matters  of  the  food,"  says  he,  "  are  used 
to  lay  on  fat,  or  for  the  purpose  of  sustaining  respiration. 

"Starch,  sugar,  gum,  and  a  few  other  non-nitrogenized 
substances,  consisting  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen, 
supply  the  carbon  given  off  in  respiration,  or  they  are 
used  for  the  production  of  fat. 

11  Phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia  in  food  principally 


FEEDING     FOR    SPECIAL    PURPOSES.  121 

furnish  the  animal  with  the  materials  of  which  the  bony 
skeleton  of  its  body  consists. 

"Saline  substances — chlorides  of  sodium  and  potas- 
sium, sulphate  and  phosphate  of  potash  and  soda,  and 
some  other  mineral  matters  occurring  in  food  —  supply 
the  blood,  juice  of  flesh,  and  various  animal  juices,  with 
the  necessary  mineral  constituents. 

"The  healthy  state  of  an  animal  can  thus  only  be  pre- 
served by  a  mixed  food;  that  is,  food  which  contains  all 
the  proximate  principles  just  noticed.  Starch  or  sugar 
alone  cannot  sustain  the  animal  body,  because  neither  of 
them  furnishes  the  materials  to  build  up  the  fleshy  parts 
of  the  animal.  When  fed  on  substances  in  which  an  in- 
sufficient quantity  of  phosphates  occurs,  the  animal  will 
become  weak,  because  it  does  not  find  any  bone-pro- 
ducing principles  in  its  food.  Due  attention,  therefore, 
ought  to  be  paid  by  the  feeder  to  the  selection  of  food 
which  contains  all  the  kinds  of  matter  required,  nitro- 
genized  as  well  as  non-nitrogenized,  and  mineral  sub- 
stances ;  and  these  should  be  mixed  together  in  the 
proportion  which  experience  points  out  as  best  for  the 
different  kinds  of  animals,  or  the  particular  purpose  for 
which  they  are  kept." 

"On  the  nutrition  of  cows  for  dairy  purposes,"  Dr. 
Voelcker  still  further  observes  that  "milk  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  material  for  the  manufacture  of  butter  or 
of  cheese  ;  and,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  the 
milk  is  intended  to  be  employed,  whether  for  the  manu- 
facture of  butter  or  the  production  of  cheese,  the  cow 
should  be  differently  fed. 

"Butter  contains  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and 
no  nitrogen.  Cheese,  on  the  contrary,  is  rich  in  nitro- 
gen. Food  which  contains  much  fatty  matter,  or  sub- 
stances which  in  the  animal  system  are  readily  con- 
verted into  fat,  will  tend  to  increase  the  proportion  of 
11 


122  FOft    MILK,    BUTTER,    AND     CHEESE. 

cream  in  milk.  On  the  other  hand,  the  proportion  of 
caseine  or  cheesy  matter  in  milk  is  increased  by  the  use 
of  highly  nitrogenized  food.  Those,  therefore,  who 
desire  much  cream,  or  who  produce  milk  for  the  manu- 
facture of  butter,  select  food  likely  to  increase  the  pro- 
portion of  butter  in  the  milk.  On  the  contrary,  where 
the  principal  object  is  the  production  of  milk  rich  in 
curd, —  that  is,  where  cheese  is  the  object  of  the  farmer, 
—  clover,  peas,  and  bean-meal,  and  other  plants  which 
abound  in  legumine, —  a  nitrogenized  organic  com- 
pound, almost  identical  in  properties  and  composition 
with  caseine,  or  the  substance  which  forms  the  curd  of 
milk, —  will  be  selected."  And  so  the  quality,  as  well  as 
the  quantity,  of  butter  in  the  milk,  depends  on  the  kind 
of  food  consumed,  and  on  the  general  health  of  the 
animal.  Cows  fed  on  turnips  in  the  stall  always  pro- 
duce butter  inferior  to  that  of  cows  living  upon  the 
fresh  and  aromatic  grasses  of  the  pastures. 

Succulent  food  in  which  water  abounds  —  the  green 
grass  of  irrigated  meadows,  green  clover,  brewers' 
refuse,  distillers'  refuse,  etc.  —  increases  the  quantity, 
rather  than  the  quality,  of  the  milk  ;  and  by  feeding 
these  substances  the  milk-dairyman  studies  his  own 
interest,  and  makes  thin  milk,  without  diluting  it  with 
water,  though,  in  the  opinion  of  some,  this  may  be  no 
more  legitimate  than  watering  the  milk. 

But,  though  the  yield  of  milk  may  be  increased  by 
succulent  or  watery  food,  it  should  be  given  so  as  not 
to  interfere  with  the  health  of  the  cow. 

Food  rich  in  starch,  gum,  or  sugar,  which  are  the 
respiratory  elements,  an  excess  of  which  goes  to  the 
production  of  fatty  matters,  increases  the  butter  in  milk. 
Quietness  promotes  the  secretion  of  fat  in  animals  and 
increases  the  butter.  Cheese  will  be  increased  by  food 
rich  in  albumen,  such  as  the  leguminous  plants. 


SUMMER    FOOD    FOR    COWS 


123 


The  most  natural,  and  of  course  the  healthiest  food 
for  milch  cows  in  summer,  is  the  green  grass  of  the 
pastures ;  and  when  these  fail  from  drought,  or  over- 
stocking, the  complement  of  nourishment  may  be  made 
up  with  green  clover,  green  oats,  barley,  millet,  or  corn- 
fodder,  and  cabbage-leaves,  or  other  succulent  vegeta- 
bles ;  and  if  these  are  wanting,  their  place  may  be 
partly  supplied  with  shorts,  Indian-meal,  linseed  or  cot- 
ton-seed meal.  Green  grass  is  more  nutritious  than 
hay,  which  always  loses  more  or  less  of  its  nutritive 
qualities  in  curing;  the  amount  of  the  loss  depending 
chiefly  on  the  mode  of  curing,  and  the  length  of  ex- 
posure to  sun  and  rain.  But,  apart  from  this,  grass  is 
more  easily  and  completely  digested  than  hay,  though 
the  digestion  of  hay  may  be  greatly  aided  by  cutting 
and  moistening,  or  steaming ;  and  by  this  means  it  is 
rendered  more  readily  available,  and  hence  far  better 
adapted  to  promote  a  large  secretion  of  milk  —  a  fact 
too  often  overlooked  by  many  even  intelligent  farmers. 

That  green  grass  is  better  adapted  than  most  other 
kinds  of  food  to  promote  a  large  flow  of  milk,  may  be 
be  seen  from  the  following  table,  from  which  it  will 
appear  that  greater  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
proper  constituents  of  food  for  milch  cows.  Two 
cows  were  taken  in  the  experiment. 


Food  of  two  cows. 

Milk  in 
five  days. 

Butter  in 
five  days. 

Nitrogen  in 

food  in 
five  days. 

1.  Grass, 

2.  Barley  and  hay,  .     .     . 

3.  Malt  and  hay,      .     .     . 

4.  Barley,  molasses,  and) 

hay,      .     .     .     .  j 

5.  Barley,    linseed,   and) 

hay,       ....  J 

6.  Beans  and  hay,    .     .     . 

114  lbs. 

107 

102 

106 

108 
108 

3.50  lbs. 

3.43 

3.20 

3.44 

3.48 
3.72 

2.321bs 

3.89 

3.34 

3.82 

4.14 

5.27 

124  AUTUMN  FOOD  FOR  COWS. 

Here  grass  produced  the  largest  flow  of  milk,  but  of 
a  quality  less  rich  than  bean-meal  and  hay,  which  pro- 
duced the  richest  quality ;  one  hundred  and  eight 
pounds  making  more  butter  than  one  hundred  and  four- 
teen pounds  of  grass-made  milk. 

In  autumn,  the  best  feed  will  be  the  grasses  of  the 
pastures,  so  far  as  they  are  available,  green-corn  fod- 
der, cabbage,  carrot  and  turnip  leaves,  and  an  addition 
of  meal  or  shorts.  Towards  the  middle  of  autumn,  the 
cows  fed  in  the  pastures  will  require  to  be  housed  reg- 
ularly nights,  especially  in  the  more  northern  latitudes, 
and  put,  in  part  at  least,  upon  hay.  But  every  farmer 
knows  that  it  is  not  judicious  to  feed  out  the  best  part 
of  his  hay  when  his  cattle  are  first  put  into  the  barn, 
and  that  he  should  not  feed  so  well  in  the  early  part  of 
winter  that  he  cannot  feed  better  as  it  advances. 

At  the  same  time,  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  change  from  grass  to  a  poor  quality  of  hay  or 
straw,  for  cows  in  milk,  should  not  be  too  sudden.  A 
poor  quality  of  dry  hay  is  far  less  palatable  in  the  early 
part  of  winter,  after  the  cows  are  taken  from  grass, 
than  at  a  later  period  ;  and,  if  it  is  resorted  to  with 
milch  cows,  will  inevitably  lead  to  a  falling  off  in  the 
milk,  which  no  good  feed  can  afterwards  wholly  restore. 

It  is  desirable,  therefore,  to  know  what  can  be  used 
instead  of  his  best  English  or  upland  meadow  hay,  and 
yet  not  suffer  any  greater  loss  in  the  flow  of  milk,  or 
condition,  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  In  some  sec- 
tions of  New  England,  the  best  quality  of  swale  hay 
will  be  used  ;  and  the  composition  of  that  is  as  variable 
as  possible,  depending  on  the  varieties  of  grasses  of 
which  it  was  made,  and  the  manner  of  curing.  But 
in  other  sections,  many  will  find  it  necessary  to  use 
straw,  and  other  substitutes;  and  it  may  be  desirable  to 
know  how  much  is  required  to  form  an  equivalent  in 


NUTRITIVE     EQUIVALENTS. 


125 


nutrition  to  good  meadow  or  English  hay.  The  follow- 
ing brief  table  of  nutritive  equivalents  will  be  conve- 
nient for  reference : 


1  Meadow  hay,  . 

2  Red  Clover-hay. 

3.  Rye-straw,  .  . 

4.  Oat-straw,  .  . 

5.  Wheat-straw,  . 

6.  Barley-straw,  . 

7.  Pea -straw,  . 


Nutritive 

Percentage  of  Nitrogen. 

equivalent. 

Dried. 

Undried. 

100 

1.34 

1.15 

75 

1.70 

1.54 

479 

0.30 

0.24 

383 

0.36 

0.30 

426 

0.36 

0.27 

460 

0.30 

0.25 

64 

1.45 

1.79 

The  following  is  the  composition  of  these   several 
substances,   in   which   their  relative    value    will 
distinctly  appear  : 


more 


Water. 

Woody  fibre. 

Starch,  Gum, 
Sugar. 

Gluten,  Albu- 
men, etc. 

Fatty  matter. 

Saline 
matter. 

14 

30 

40 

7.1 

2  to  5 

5  to  10 

14 

25 

40 

9.3 

3  to  5 

9 

12  to  15 

45 

38 

1.3 

4 

12 

45 

35 

1.3 

0.8      . 

6 

12  to  15 

50 

30 

1.3 

2  to  3 

5 

12  to  15 

50 

30 

1.3 

5 

10  to  15 

25 

45 

12.3 

1.5 

4  to  6 

From  these  tables  it  will  be  seen  that,  taking  good 
English  or  meadow  hay  as  the  standard  of  comparison, 
and  calling  that  one,  4.79  times  the  weight  of  rye-straw, 
or  3.83  times  the  weight  of  oat-straw,  contains  the  same 
amount  of  nutritive  matter;  that  is,  it  would  take  4.79 
times  as  much  rye-straw  to  produce  the  same  result 
as  good  meadow  hay. 

The  more  elaborate  nutritive  equivalents  of  Boussin- 
gault  will  be  found  to  be  very  valuable  and  suggestive, 
and  the  following  table  is  given  in  this  connection  for 
the  sake  of  convenient  reference. 
11* 


126 


TABLE    OF    EQUIVALENTS. 


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WINTER    FOOD    FOR    COWS.  127 

The  reader  will  find  no  difficulty  in  making  this  table 
of  practical  value  in  deciding  upon  the  proper  course 
of  feeding  to  be  pursued. 

In  winter  the  best  food  for  cows  in  milk  will  be  good 
sweet  meadow  hay,  a  part  of  which  should  be  cut  and 
moistened  with  water,  as  all  inferior  hay  or  straw  should 
be,  with  an  addition  of  root-crops,  such  as  turnips,  car- 
rots,  parsnips,  potatoes,  mangold  wurzel,  with  shorts, 
oil-cake,  Indian-meal,  or  bean-meal. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  most  successful  dairymen  that 
the  feeding  of  moist  food  cannot  be  too  highly  recom- 
mended for  cows  in  milk,  especially  to  those  who  desire 
to  obtain  the  largest  quantity.  Hay  cut  and  thoroughly 
moistened  becomes  more  succulent  and  nutritive,  and 
partakes  more  of  the  nature  of  green  grass. 

As  a  substitute  for  the  oil-cake,  hitherto  known  as  an 
exceedingly  valuable  article  for  feeding  stock,  there  is 
probably  nothing  better  than  cotton-seed  meal,  now  to 
be  had  in  large  quantities  in  the  market.  This  is  an 
article  whose  economic  value  has  been  but  recently 
made  known,  but  which,  from  practical  trials  already 
made,  has  proved  eminently  successful  as  food  for  milch 
cows.  An  average  specimen  of  this  was  submitted  for 
analysis  to  Professor  Johnson,  who  reported  that  its 
composition  is  not  inferior  to  that  of  the  best  flax-seed 
cake,  and  that  in  some  respects  its  agricultural  value 
surpasses  that  of  any  other  kind  of  oil-cake,  as  is  shown 
in  the  following  table,  containing  in  column  first  the 
analyses  of  cotton-seed  meal  made  by  himself;  in  column 
second,  some  of  the  results  obtained  by  Dr.  C.  T.  Jack- 
son on  cake  prepared  by  himself  from  hulled  cotton-seed; 
in  column  third,  an  analysis  of  cotton-seed  cake,  made  by 
Dr.  Anderson,  of  Edinburgh  ;  in  column  fourth,  the  aver- 
age composition  of  eight  samples  of  American  linseed- 
cake ;  and  in  column  fifth,  an  analysis  of  meadow  hay. 


128    ON    WHAT     THE    VALUE    OF    FOOD     DEPENDS, 


obtained  by  Dr.  Wolff  in  Saxony,  given  as^a  means  of 
comparison. 


ii. 


in. 


i  ^.  i 


v. 


Water, 

Oil, 

Albuminous  bodies,     .     . 
Mucilaginous  and  Saccha- 
rine matters,  .... 

Fibre, 

Ash, 


Nitrogen,  .... 
Phosphoric  acid  in  ash, 
Sand, 


6.82 
16.47 
44.41 

12.74 

11.76 

7.80 


100.00 

7.05 
2.36 
.   .94 


48.82 


.96 


r  .70 

2.45 


11.19 

9.08 

25.16 

48.93 

5.64 


100.00 
3.95 
1.32 


9.23 
12.96 

28.28 

34.22 

9.00 
6.21 

100.00 


4.47 


16.94 

10.09 

40.11 

27.16 
5.04 


100.00 


Johnson  also  remarks,  in  this  connection,  that  the 
great  value  of  linseed-cake,  as  an  adjunct  to  hay  for  fat 
cattle  and  milch  cows,  has  long  been  recognized ;  and 
is  undeniably  traceable  in  the  main  to  three  ingredients 
of  the  seeds  of  the  oil-yielding  plants.  The  value  of 
food  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  matters  it  contains 
which  may  be  appropriated  by  the  animal  which  con- 
sumes the  food.  Now,  it  is  proved  that  the  fat  of  ani- 
mals is  derivable  from  the  starch,  gum,  and  sugar,  and 
more  directly  and  easily  from  the  oil  of  the  food. 
These  four  substances  are,  then,  the  fat-formers.  The 
muscles,  nerves,  and  tendons  of  animals,  the  fibrine  of 
their  blood,  and  the  curd  of  their  milk,  are  almost  iden- 
tical in  composition,  and  strongly  similar  in  many  of 
their  properties  with  matters  found  in  all  vegetables, 
but  chiefly  in  such  as  form  the  most  concentrate^  food. 
These  blood  (and  muscle)  formers  are  characterized  by 
containing  about  fifteen  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  nitrogen ; 
and  hence  are  called  nitrogenous  substances.  They  are 
also  often  designated  as  the  albuminous  bodies. 

The  bony  framework  of  the  animal  owes  its  solidity 
to  phosphate  of  lime,  and  this  substance  must  be  fur 


COTTON-SEED    CAKE.  129 

oished  by  the  food.  A  perfect  food  must  supply  the 
animal  with  these  three  classes  of  bodies,  and  in  proper 
proportions.  The  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  a  food 
rich  in  oil  and  albuminous  substances  to  the  ordinary 
kinds  of  feed,  which  contain  a  large  quantity  of  vegeta- 
ble fibre  or  woody  matter,  more  or  less  indigestible,  but 
nevertheless  indispensable  to  the  herbivorous  animals, 
their  digestive  organs  being  adapted  to  a  bulky  food, 
has  been  found  highly  advantageous  in  practice.  Nei- 
ther hay  alone  nor  concentrated  food  alone  gives  the 
best  results.  A  certain  combination  of  the  two  pre- 
sents the  most  advantages. 

A  Bavarian  farmer  has  recently  announced  that  heif- 
ers fed,  for  three  months  before  calving,  with  a  little 
linseed-cake,  in  addition  to  their  other  fodder,  acquire 
a  larger  development  of  the  milk-vessels,  and  yield 
more  milk  afterwards,  than  similar  animals  fed  as  usual. 
Cotton-seed  cake  must  have  an  equally  good  effect. 

Some  of  those  who  have  used  cotton-seed  cake  have 
found  difficulty  in  inducing  cattle  to  eat  it.  By  giving 
it  at  first  in  small  doses,  mixed  with  other  palatable 
food,  they  soon  learn  to  eat  it  with  relish. 

On  comparing  the  analyses  II.  and  I.  with  the  aver- 
age composition  of  linseed-cake  IV.,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  cotton-seed  cake  is  much  richer  in  oil  and  albumi- 
nous matters  than  the  linseed-cake.  A  correspondingly 
less  quantity  will  therefore  be  required.  Three  pounds 
of  this  cotton-seed  cake  are  equivalent  to  four  of  linseed- 
cake  of  average  quality. 

During  the  winter  season,  as  already  remarked,  a  fre- 
quent change  of  food  is  especially  necessary,  both  as 
contributing  to  the  general  health  of  animals,  and  as  a 
means  of  stimulating  the  digestive  organs,  and  thus 
increasing  the  secretion  of  milk.  A  mixture  used  as 
cut  feed,  and  well  moistened,  is  now  especially  benefi- 

9 


130      BULK  AS  AN  ELEMENT  OF  FOOD. 

cial,  since  concentrated  food,  which  would  otherwise 
be  given  in  small  quantities,  may  be  united  with  larger 
quantities  of  coarser  and  less  nutritive  food,  and  the 
complete  assimilation  of  the  whole  be  better  secured. 
On  this  subject  Dr.  Voelcker  truly  observes  that  the 
most  nutritious  kinds  of  food  produce  little  or  no  effect 
when  they  are  not  digested  by  the  stomach,  or  if  the 
digested  food  is  not  absorbed  by  the  lymphatic  vessels, 
and  not  assimilated  by  the  various  parts  of  the  body. 
Now,  the  normal  functions  of  the  digestive  organs  not 
only  depend  on  the  composition  of  the  food,  but  also 
on  its  volume.  The  volume  or  bulk  of  the  food  con- 
tributes to  the  healthy  activity  of  the  digestive  organs, 
by  exercising  a  stimulating  effect  on  the  nerves  which 
govern  them.  Thus  the  whole  organization  of  ruminat- 
ing animals  necessitates  the  supply  of  bulky  food,  to 
keep  the  animal  in  good  condition. 

Feed  sweet  and  nutritious  food,  therefore,  regu- 
larly, frequently,  and  in  small  quantities,  and  change  it 
often,  and  the  best  results  may  be  confidently  expected. 
If  the  cows  are  not  in  milk,  but  are  to  come  in  in  the 
spring,  the  difference  in  feeding  should  be  rather  in  the 
quantity  than  the  quality,  if  the  highest  yield  is  to  be 
expected  from  them  the  coming  season. 

The  most  common  feeding  is  hay  alone,  and  oftentimes 
very  poor  hay,  at  that.  The  main  point  is  to  keep  the 
animal  in  a  healthy  and  thriving  condition,  and  not  to 
suffer  her  to  fail  in  flesh ;  and  with  this  object  some 
change  and  variety  of  food  is  highly  important.  And 
here  it  may  be  remarked  that  cows  in  calf  should  not, 
as  a  general  rule,  be  milked  the  last  month  or  six  weeks 
before  calving,  and  many  prefer  to  have  them  run  dry 
as  many  as  eight  or  ten  weeks.  The  yield  of  milk  is 
better  the  coming  season,  and  holds  out  better,  than  if 
they  are  milked  up  to  the  time  of  calving. 


PARTURITION     OF    THE     COW.  131 

There  are  exceptions,  however,  and  it  is  often  very 
difficult  to  dry  off  a  cow  sufficiently  to  make  it  judicious 
to  cease  milking  much,  if  any,  before  the  time  of  calving. 
Some  even  prefer  to  milk  quite  up  to  this  time ;  but  the 
weight  of  authority  among  the  best  practical  farmers  is 
so  decidedly  against  it,  that  there  can  be  no  question 
of  its  bad  economy.  Towards  the  close  of  winter,  a 
herd  of  cows  will  begin  to  come  in,  or  approach  their 
time  of  calving.  Care  should  then  be  taken  not  to  feed 
too  rich  or  stimulating  food  for  the  last  week  or  two 
before  this  event,  as  it  is  often  attended  with  ill  conse- 
quences. A  plenty  of  hay,  a  few  potatoes  or  shorts, 
and  pure  water,  will  be  sufficient. 

As  the  time  of  calving  approaches,  the  cow  should  be 
removed  from  the  rest  of  the  herd,  to  a  pen  with  a  level 
floor,  by  herself.  Nothing  is  needed,  usually,  but  to 
supply  her  regularly  with  food  and  drink,  and  leave  her 
quietly  to  herself.  In  most  cases  the  parturition  will 
be  natural  and  easy,  and  the  less  the  cow  is  disturbed 
or  meddled  with,  the  better.  She  will  do  better  with- 
out help  than  with  ;  but  she  should  be  watched,  in  order 
to  see  that  no  difficulty  occurs  which  may  require  aid 
and  attention.  In  cases  of  difficult  parturition  the 
aid  of  a  skilful  veterinary  surgeon  may  be  required. 
For  those  who  may  desire  to  make  themselves  familiar 
with  the  details  of  such  cases  so  far  as  to  be  able  to  act 
for  themselves,  Skellett's  "  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Parturition  of  the  Cow,  or  the  Extraction  of  the  Calf/- 
an  elaborate  work,  published  in  London  in  1844,  will  be 
an  important  guide. 

In  spring  the  best  feeding  for  dairy  cows  will  be 
much  the  same  as  that  for  winter  ;  the  roots  in  store 
over  winter,  such  as  carrots,  mangold  wurzel,  turnips, 
and  parsnips,  furnishing  very  valuable  aid  in  increasing 
the  quantity  and  improving  the  quality  of  milk.     Tow- 


132  FEEDING     FOR    QUANTITY. 

ards  the  close  of  this  season,  and  before  the  grass  oi 
the  pastures  is  sufficiently  grown  to  make  it  judicious 
to  turn  out  the  cows,  the  best  dairymen  provide  a  sup- 
ply of  green  fodder  in  the  shape  of  winter  rye,  which, 
if  cut  while  it  is  tender  and  succulent,  and  before  it  is 
half  grown,  will  be  greatly  relished.  Unless  cut  young, 
however,  its  stalk  soon  becomes  hard  and  unpalatable. 

Having  stated  briefly  the  general  principles  of  feed- 
ing cows  for  the  dairy,  it  is  proper  to  give  the  state- 
ments of  successful  practical  dairymen,  both  as  corrob- 
orating what  has  already  been  said,  and  as  showing  the 
difference  in  practice  in  feeding  and  managing  with 
reference  to  the  specific  objects  of  dairy  farming.  And 
first,  a  farmer  of  Massachusetts,  supplying  milk  for  the 
Boston  market,  and  feeding  for  that  object,  says :  "  For 
thirty  cows,  cut  with  a  machine  thirty  bushels  for  one 
feed  ;  one  third  common  English  hay,  one  third  salt  hay, 
and  one  third  rye  or  barley  straw ;  add  thirty  quarts  of 
wheat  bran  or  shorts,  and  ten  quarts  of  oat  and  corn 
meal  moistened  with  water.  One  bushel  of  this  mixture 
is  given  to  each  cow  in  the  morning,  and  the  same 
quantity  at  noon  and  in  the  evening.  In  addition  to 
this,  a  peck  of  mangold  wurzel  is  given  to  each  cow 
per  day.  This  mode  of  feeding  has  been  found  to  pro- 
duce nearly  as  much  milk  as  the  best  grass  feed  in  sum- 
mer. When  no  wheat-bran  or  any  kind  of  meal  is  given, 
the  hay  is  fed  without  cutting." 

Another  excellent  farmer,  of  the  western  part  of  the 
same  state,  devoting  his  attention  to  the  manufacture 
of  cheese,  and  the  successful  competitor  for  the  first 
prize  of  the  state  society  for  dairies,  says  of  his  feeding : 
"  My  pastures  are  upland,  and  yield  sweet  feed.  I  fed, 
in  the  month  of  June,  all  the  whey  from  the  milk  made 
into  cheese,  without  any  meal.  In  September,  my  pas- 
tures being  very  much  dried  up,  I  fed  all  the   whey. 


FEEDING    FOR    QUALITY.  133 

with  one  quart  of  meal  to  each  cow,  and  also  ten  pounds 
of  corn  fodder  to  each  cow  per  day. 

11 1  commence  feeding  my  cows  in  the  spring,  before 
calving,  with  three  quarts  of  meal  each  per  day,  until 
the  feed  in  the  pasture  is  good. 

"  I  consider  the  best  mixture  of  grain,  ground  into 
meal,  for  milk,  is  equal  quantities  of  rye,  buckwheat, 
and  oats.  For  the  last  ten  years  I  have  not  made  less 
than  five  hundred  pounds  of  cheese  and  twenty  pounds 
of  butter  to  each  cow  ;  and  one  year  I  made  six  hundred 
and  forty  pounds  of  cheese  and  twenty  pounds  of  butter 
to  each  cow. 

"  A  cow  will  give  more  milk  on  good  fresh  grass  than 
any  other  feed.  When  the  grass  begins  to  fail,  1  make 
up  the  deficiency  by  extra  feed  of  meal  and  corn  fodder. 
I  feed  all  my  whey  to  my  cows.  I  let  them  run  dry 
four  months,  and  during  this  time  I  give  them  no  extra 
feed,  always  keeping  salt  before  them." 

Another,  with  one  of  the  best  butter  dairies  in  the 
same  state,  explains  his  mode  of  management  of  cows 
in  the  stall  as  follows  :  "  In  the  management  of  my  stock 
the  utmost  gentleness  is  observed,  and  exact  regularity 
in  the  hours  of  feeding  while  confined  to  the  stable,  and 
of  milking  throughout  the  year. 

"  The  stock  is  fed  regularly  three  times  a  day. 
"  In  the  morning,  as  soon  as  the  milking  is  over,  each 
cow  (having  been  previously  fed,  and  her  bag  cleaned 
by  washing,  if  necessary)  is  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
groomed,  if  the  expression  may  be  used,  with  a  curry- 
comb, from  head  to  foot,  and,  when  cleaned,  turned  out 
to  drink.  The  stable  is  now  cleaned  out,  the  mangers 
swept,  and  the  floors  sprinkled  with  plaster ;  and  as  the 
cows  return,  which  they  do  as  soon  as  inclined,  they 
are  tied  up  and  left  undisturbed  until  the  next  hour  of 
feeding,  which  is  at  noon. 
12 


134  A    PRACTICAL    STATEMENT. 

"The  cattle  at  this  time  are  again  turned  out  to 
drink,  and,  after  being  tied  up  on  their  return  again 
fed.  Of  course  the  stable  is  at  this  time  again  ther 
oughly  cleansed.  And  so  again  at  night  the  same 
course  is  pursued.  At  this  time  a  good  bedding  is 
spread  for  each  cow,  and,  after  all  are  in,  they  are  fed. 

"  At  six  o'clock  the  milking  commences,  and  at  its 
termination,  after  removing  from  the  floor  whatever 
manure  may  have  been  dropped,  the  stable  is  closed  for 
the  night.  If  carrots  are  fed,  which  is  the  only  root 
allowed  to  my  cows  in  milk,  they  are  given  at  the  time 
of  the  evening  milking. 

"  Whatever  material  is  taken  for  bedding  (as  corn- 
stalks, husks,  &c.)  is  passed  through  a  cutting-machine, 
and  composes  the  noon  feed,  such  portions  as  are  not 
consumed  by  the  cows  being  used  for  bedding.  The 
additional  labor  of  cutting  up  is  amply  compensated  by 
the  reduced  amount  of  labor  in  working  (loading)  and 
ploughing  under  the  manure. 

"  While  I  consider  it  highly  desirable  that  the  cows, 
during  the  period  they  are  stabled,  should  be  kept  warm 
and  dry,  I  regard  it  as  indispensable  that  they  should 
be  perfectly  clean ;  and,  although  the  stock  is  stabled 
the  whole  time,  care  is  taken  that  there  is  a  sufficient 
degree  of  ventilation." 

In  Herkimer  county,  New  York,  one  of  the  best  dairy 
districts  in  the  country,  a  dairy  farmer  who  kept  twenty- 
five  cows  for  the  manufacture  of  cheese,  making  in  one 
year  nearly  seven  hundred  pounds  per  cow,  states  his 
mode  of  feeding  as  follows :  "  When  the  ground  is  set- 
tled, and  grass  is  grown  so  that  cows  can  get  their  fill 
without  too  much  toil,  they  are  allowed  to  graze  an 
hour,  only,  the  first  day ;  the  second  day  a  little  longer 
and  so  on,  till  they  get  accustomed  to  the  change  of 
feed  before  they  are  allowed  to  have  full  range  of  pas- 


CHANGE    OF    PASTURE.  —  CORN    FODDER.      135 

ture.  Shift  of  pasture  is  frequently  made  to  keep  feed 
fresh  and  a  good  bite.  About  one  acre  per  cow  affords 
plenty  of  feed  till  the  first  of  August.  If  enough  land 
was  turned  to  pasture  to  feed  the  cows  through  the 
season,  it  would  get  a  start  of  them  about  this  time,  and 
be  hard  and  dry  the  balance  of  the  season.  To  avoid 
turning  on  my  meadows  in  the  fall,  I  take  one  acre  to 
every  ten  cows,  plough  and  prepare  it  the  fore  part 
of  June  for  sowing ;  I  commence  sowing  corn  broadcast, 
about  half  an  acre  at  a  time  (for  twenty-five  cows),  so 
that  it  may  grow  eighty  or  ninety  days  before  it  is  cut 
and  fed.  I  have  found,  by  experiment,  that  it  then  con- 
tains the  most  saccharine  juice,  and  will  produce  the 
most  milk.  If  the  ground  is  strong,  I  sow  two  bushels 
per  acre ;  more  if  the  ground  is  not  manured. 

"  The  common  yield  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  tons  (of 
green  feed)  per  acre.  About  the  first  of  August,  when 
heat  and  flies  are  too  oppressive  for  cows  to  feed  quietly 
in  the  day-time,  I  commence  feeding  them  with  what 
corn  they  will  eat  in  the  morning,  daily,  which  is  cut  up 
with  a  grass-scythe,  and  drawn  on  a  sled  or  wagon  to 
the  milk-barn  and  fed  to  them  in  the  stalls,  which  is 
one  hour's  work  for  a  man  at  each  feeding.  When  thus 
plentifully  fed,  my  cows  have  their  knitting-work  on 
hand  for  the  day,  which  they  can  do  up  by  lying  quietly 
under  artificial  shades,  erected  in  such  places  as  need 
manuring  most,  and  are  most  airy,  by  setting  posts  and 
putting  poles  and  bushes  on  top,  the  sides  being  left 
open.  These  shades  ma}T  be  made  and  removed  annu- 
ally, to  enrich  other  portions  of  soil,  if  desired,  at  the 
small  expense  of  one  dollar  for  each  ten  cows.  At 
evening,  my  cows  are  fed  whey  only,  because  they  can 
feed  more  quietly,  with  less  rambling,  and  will  give 
more  milk  by  feeding  most  when  the  dew  is  on  the 
grass. 


136  AIR    AND     WARMTH. 

"The  capacity  of  cows  for  giving  milk  is  varied 
much  by  habit.  In  fall,  after  the  season  of  feeding  is 
past,  I  feed  four  quarts  of  wheat  bran  or  shorts  made 
into  slop  with  whey,  or  a  peck  of  roots  to  each  cow,  tih 
milking  season  closes  (about  the  first  of  December). 
When  confined  in  stables  and  fed  hay  and  milked,  they 
are  fed  each  one  pail  full  of  thin  slop  at  morning  before 
foddering,  and  also  at  evening,  to  render  their  food 
more  succulent,  and  they  will  not  drink  so  much  cold 
water  when  let  out  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  In  cold 
weather  cows  are  kept  well  attended  in  warm  stables. 
No  foddering  is  done  on  the  ground.  Thus  a  supply 
of  milk  is  kept  up,  and  the  cows  get  in  good  flesh, 
while  their  blood  and  bags  are  left  in  a  healthy  con- 
dition when  dried  off. 

"  This  flesh  they  hold  till  milk  season  in  spring,  with- 
out other  feed  than  good  hay.  They  will  not  get 
fleshy  bags,  but  come  into  milk  at  once.  About  the 
first  of  April  they  are  carded  daily,  till  they  are  turned 
to  grass.  Wheat-bran  in  milk  or  whey,  slops,  or 
roots,  are  daily  fed,  as  they  are  found  best  adapted  to 
the  nature  of  different  cows,  and  most  likely  to  estab- 
lish a  regular  flow  of  milk  till  grass  comes." 

All  practical  dairymen  concur  in  saying  that  a  warm 
and  well-ventilated  barn  is  indispensable  to  the  promo- 
tion of  the  highest  yield  of  milk  in  winter  ;  and  most 
agree  that  cows  in  milk  should  not  be  turned  out  even 
to  drink  in  cold  weather,  all  exposure  to  cold  tending 
to  lessen  the  yield  of  milk. 

In  the  London  dairies,  where,  of  course,  the  cows 
are  fed  so  as  to  produce  the  largest  flow  of  milk,  the 
treatment  is  as  follows :  The  cows  are  kept  at  night  in 
stalls.  About  three  a.  m.  each  has  half  a  bushel  of 
grains.  When  milking  is  finished,  each  receives  a 
bushel  of  turr.ips  (or  mangolds),  and  shortly  afterwards 


THE    WILLOWBANK    DAIRY.  137 

one  tenth  of  a  truss  of  hay  of  the  best  quality.  This 
feeding  occurs  before  eight  a.  m.,  when  the  animals  are 
turned  into  the  yard.  Four  hours  after,  they  are  again 
tied  up  in  their  stalls,  and  have  another  feed  of  grains. 
When  the  afternoon  milking  is  over  (about  three  p.  M.), 
they  are  fed  with  a  bushel  of  turnips,  and  after  the 
lapse  of  an  hour,  hay  is  given  them  as  before.  This 
mode  of  feeding  usually  continues  throughout  the  root 
season,  or  from  November  to  March.  During  the 
remaining  months  they  are  fed  with  grains,  tares,  and 
cabbages,  and  a  proportion  of  rowen  or  second-cut  hay. 
They  are  supplied  regularly  until  they  are  turned  out 
to  grass,  when  they  pass  the  whole  of  the  night  in  the 
field.  The  yield  is  about  six  hundred  and  fifty  gallons 
a  year  for  each  cow. 

Mr.  Harley,  whose  admirable  dairy  establishment  has 
been  already  alluded  to,  as  erected  for  the  purpose  of 
supplying  the  city  of  Glasgow  with  a  good  quality  of 
milk,  and  which  contributed  more  than  anything  else  to 
improve  the  quality  of  milk  furnished  to  all  the  cities 
of  Great  Britain,  adopted  the  following  system  of  feed- 
ing with  the  greatest  profit:  In  the  early  part  of 
summer,  young  grass  and  green  barley,  the  first  cut- 
ting especially,  mixed  with  a  large  proportion  of  old 
hay  or  straw,  and  a  good  quantity  of  salt  to  prevent 
swelling,  were  used.  As  summer  advanced  less  hay 
and  straw  were  given,  and  as  the  grass  approached 
ripeness  they  were  discontinued  altogether,  but  young 
and  wet  clover  was  never  given  without  an  admixture 
of  dry  provender.  When  grass  became  scarce,  young 
turnips  and  turnip-leaves  were  steamed  with  hay,  and 
formed  a  good  substitute.  As  grass  decreased  the 
turnips  were  increased,  and  at  length  became  a  com- 
plete substitute.  As  the  season  advanced  a  large  pro- 
portion of  distillers'  grains  and  wash  was  given  with 
12* 


138     MR.  horsfall's  course   of   feeding. 

other  food,  but  these  were  found  to  be  apt  to  make  the 
cattle  grain-sick ;  and  if  this  feeding  were  long  con- 
tinued, the  health  of  the  cows  became  affected.  Boiled 
linseed  and  short-cut  wheat-straw  mixed  with  the 
grains  were  found  to  prevent  the  cows  from  turning 
sick.  As  spring  approached,  Swedish  turnips,  wrhen 
cheap,  were  substituted  for  yellow  turnips.  These  two 
roots,  steamed  with  hay  and  other  mixtures,  alforded 
soft  food  till  grass  was  again  in  season.  When  any  of 
the  cows  were  surfeited,  the  food  was  withheld  till  the 
apretite  returned,  when  a  small  quantity  was  given, 
and  increased  gradually  to  the  full  allowance. 

But  the  most  elaborate  and  valuable  experiments  in 
the  feeding  and  management  of  milch  cows  are  those 
recently  made  by  Mr.  T.  Horsfall,  of  England,  and  pub- 
lished in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society. 
His  practice,  though  adapted,  perhaps,  more  especially 
to  his  own  section,  is  nevertheless  of  such  general 
application  and  importance  as  to  be  worthy  of  attention. 
By  his  course  of  treatment  he  found  that  he  could  pro- 
duce as  much  and  as  rich  butter  in  winter  as  in 
summer. 

His  first  object  was  to  afford  a  full  supply  of  the  ele- 
ments of  food  adapted  to  the  maintenance  and  also  to 
the  produce  of  the  animal ;  and  this  could  not  be  effected 
by  the  ordinary  food  and  methods  of  feeding,  since  it  is 
impossible  to  induce  a  cow  to  consume  a  quantity  of 
ha}T  requisite  to  supply  the  waste  of  the  system,  and 
keep  up,  at  the  same  time,  a  full  yield  of  the  best 
quality  of  milk.  He  used,  to  some  extent,  cabbages, 
kohl  rabi,  mangolds,  shorts,  and  other  substances,  rich 
in  the  constituents  of  cheese  and  butter.  "  My  food  for 
milch  cows,"  says  he,  "  after  having  undergone  various 
modifications,  has  for  two  seasons  consisted  of  rape-cake 
five  pounds  and  bran   two  pounds,  for  each  cow.  mixed 


A    NEW    KIND    OF    FOOD.  139 

with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  bean-straw,  oat-straw,  and 
shells    of  oats,  in    equal   proportions,  to    supply  them 
three  times  a  day  with  as  much  as  they  will  eat.     The 
whole    of  the    materials    are   moistened   and    blended 
together,  and,  after  being  well  steamed,  are   given  to 
the  animals  in  a  warm  state.     The  attendant  is  allowed 
one  pound  to  one  and  a  half  pounds  per  cow,  according 
to  circumstances,  of  bean-meal,  which  he  is  charged  to 
give  to  each  cow  in  proportion  to  the  yield  of  milk ; 
those  in  full  milk  getting  two   pounds   each  per  day, 
others  but  little.     It  is  dry,  and  mixed  with  the  steamed 
food  on   its  being  dealt  out  separately.     When  this  is 
eaten  up,  green  food  is  given,  consisting  of  cabbages 
from  October  to  December,  kohl  rabi  till  February,  and 
mangold  till  grass    time.     With  a  view  to   nicety   of 
flavor,  I  limit  the   supply  of  green   food  to  thirty  or 
thirty-five  pounds  per  day  for  each.     After  each  feed, 
four  pounds  of  meadow  hay,  or  twelve  pounds  per  day, 
is  given  to  each  cow.     They  are  allowed  water  twice 
a  day  to  the  extent  they  will  drink." 

Bean-straw   uncooked  being  found  to  be  hard  and 

unpalatable,  it  was  steamed  to  make  it  soft  and  pulpy, 

when  it  possessed  an  agreeable  odor,  and  imparted  its 

flavor  to  the  whole  mess.     It  was  cut  for  this  purpose 

just   before    ripening,    but    after   the    bean   was   fully 

grown,  and  in  this  state  was  found  to  possess  neaily 

double  the' amount  of  albuminous  matter,  so  valuable  to 

milch  cows,  of  good  meadow  or  upland  hay.     Bean  or 

shorts  is  also  vastly  improved  by  steaming  or  soaking 

with  hot  water,  when   its   nutriment   is  more  readily 

assimilated.     It   contains  about  fourteen  per  cent,  of 

albumen,  and  is  rich  in  phosphoric  acid.     Rape-cake  was 

found  to  be  exceedingly  valuable.     Linseed  and  cotton- 

seed  cake  may  probably  be   substituted  for  it  in  this 

country.     Mr.  Horsfall  is  accustomed  to  turn  his  cows 


140  STIMULATING    THE     APPETITE. 

in  May  into  a  rich  pasture,  housing  them  at  night,  and 
giving  them  a  mess  of  the  steamed  mixture  and  some 
hay  morning  and  night;  and  from  June  to  October  they 
have  cut  grass  in  the  stall,  besides  what  they  get  in  the 
pasture,  and  two  feeds  of  the  steamed  mixture  a  day. 
After  the  beginning  of  October  the  cows  are  kept 
housed.  With  such  management,  his  cows  generally 
yield  from  twelve  to  sixteen  quarts  of  milk  (wine 
measure)  a  day,  for  about  eight  months  after  calving, 
when  they  fall  off  in  milk,  but  gain  in  flesh,  up  to  calv- 
ing-time.  In  this  course  of  treatment  the  manure  is 
far  better  than  the  average,  and  his  pastures  are  con- 
stantly improved.  The  average  amount  of  butter  from 
every  sixteen  quarts  of  milk  is  twenty-five  ounces,  a 
proportion  far  larger  than  the  average.  His  investi- 
gations are  very  full  and  complete.  —  See  Appendix. 

How  widely  does  this  course  of  practice  differ  from 
that  of  most  farmers  !  The  object  with  many  seems 
to  be  to  see  with  how  little  food  they  can  keep  the 
cow  alive.  Now,  it  appears  to  me  that  the  milch  cow 
should  be  regarded  as  an  instrument  of  transformation. 
With  so  much  hay,  so  much  grain,  so  many  roots,  how 
can  the  most  milk,  or  butter,  or  cheese,  be  made  ?  The 
conduct  of  a  manufacturer  who  owned  good  machinery, 
and  an  abundance  of  raw  material,  and  had  the  labor  at 
hand,  would  be  considered  as  very  absurd,  if  he  hesi- 
tated to  supply  the  material,  and  keep  the  machinery  at 
work  at  least  so  long  as  he  could  run  it  with  profit. 

Stimulate  the  appetite,  then,  and  induce  the  cow  to 
oat,  by  a  frequent  change  of  diet,  not  merely  enough  to 
supply  the  constant  waste  of  her  system,  but  enough 
and  to  spare,  of  a  food  adapted  to  the  production  of 
milk  of  the  quality  desired. 

Soiung.  —  Of  the  advantages  of  soiling  milch  cows, 
or  feeding  exclusively  in  the  barn,  there  are  still  many 


THE    SOILING    SYSTEM.  141 

conflicting  opinions.  As  to  its  economy  of  land  and 
feed  there  is  no  question,  it  being  generally  admitted 
that  a  given  number  of  animals  may  be  abundantly  fed 
on  a  less  space  ;  nor  is  there  much  question  as  to  the 
increased  quantity  of  milk  yielded  in  stall  feeding.  Its 
economy  in  this  country  turns  rather  upon  the  cost  of 
labor  and  land  ;  and  the  question  asked  by  the  dairy- 
man is  whether  it  will  pay  —  whether  its  advantages 
are  sufficient  to  balance  the  extra  expense  of  cutting 
and  feeding  over  and  above  cropping  on  the  pasture. 
The  importance  of  this  subject  has  been  strongly  im- 
pressed upon  the  attention  of  farmers  in  many  sections 
of  the  country,  by  a  growing  conviction  that  something 
must  be  done  to  improve  the  pastures,  or  that  they 
must  be  abandoned  altogether. 

Thousands  of  acres  of  neglected  pasture-land  in  the 
older  states  are  so  poor  and  worn  out  that  from  four  to 
eight  acres  furnish  but  a  miserable  subsistence  for  a 
good-sized  cow.  No  animal  can  flourish  under  such  cir- 
cumstances. The  labor  and  exertion  of  feeding  is  too 
great,  to  say  nothing  of  the  vastly  inferior  quality 
of  the  grasses  in  such  pastures  to  those  on  more 
recently  seeded  lands.  True  economy  would  dictate 
that  such  pastures  should  either  be  allowed  to  run  up 
to  wood,  or  be  devoted  to  sheep-walks,  or  ploughed  and 
improved.  Cows,  to  be  able  to  yield  well,  must  have 
plenty  of  food  of  a  sweet  and  nutritious  quality  ;  and 
unless  they  find  it,  they  wander  over  a  large  space,  if 
at  liberty,  and  deprive  themselves  of  rest. 

If  a  farmer  or  dairyman  is  the  unfortunate  owner  of 
such  pastures,  there  can  be  no  question  that,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  real  economy,  he  had  better  resort  to  the  soiling 
system  for  his  milch  cows,  by  which  means  he  will 
largely  increase  his  annual  supply  of  good  manure,  and 
thus  have  the  means   of  improving,  and  bringing  his 


142  THE    TRUE    TEST. 

land  to  a  higher  state  of  cultivation.  A  very  success- 
ful instance  of  this  management  occurs  in  the  report  of 
the  visiting  committee  of  an  agricultural  society  in 
Massachusetts,  in  which  they  say  :  "  We  have  now  in 
mind  a  farmer  in  this  county  who  keeps  seven  or  eight 
cows  in  the  stable  through  the  summer,  and  feeds  them 
on  green  fodder,  chiefly  Indian-corn.  We  asked  him 
the  reasons  for  it.  His  answer  was  :  1.  That  he  gets 
more  milk  than  he  can  by  any  other  method.  2.  That 
he  gets  more  manure,  especially  liquid  manure.  3. 
That  he  saves  it  all,  by  keeping  a  supply  of  mould  or 
mud  under  the  stable,  to  be  taken  out  and  renewed  as 
often  as  necessary.  4.  That  it  is  less  troublesome  than 
to  drive  his  cows  to  pasture  ;  that  they  are  less  vexed 
by  flies,  and  have  equally  good  health.  5.  That  his 
mowing-land  is  every  year  growing  more  productive, 
without  the  expense  of  artificial  manure.  He  estimates 
that  on  an  acre  of  good  land  twenty  tons  of  green  fod- 
der may  be  raised.  That  which  is  dried  is  cut  fine,  and 
mixed  with  meal  or  shorts,  and  fed  with  profit.  He 
believes  that  a  reduced  and  partially  worn-out  farm  — 
supposing  the  land  to  be  naturally  good  —  could  be 
brought  into  prime  order  in  five  years,  without  extra 
outlay  of  money  for  manure,  by  the  use  of  green  fod- 
der in  connection  with  the  raising  and  keeping  of  pigs: 
not  fattening  them,  but  selling  at  the  age  of  four  or  five 
months."  He  keeps  most  of  his  land  in  grass,  improv 
ing  its  quality  and  productiveness  by  means  of  top- 
dressing,  and  putting  money  in  bis  pocket, —  which  is; 
after  all,  the  true  test  both  for  theory  and  practice. 

Another  practical  case  in  hand  on  this  point  is  that 
of  a  gentleman  in  the  same  state,  who  had  four  cows, 
but  not  a  rod  of  land  to  pasture  them  on.  They  were, 
therefore,  never  out  of  the  barn,  —  or,  at  least,  not 
out  of  the   yard,  —  and  were  fed  with  grass,  regularly 


ECONOMY    OF    LAND.  143 

mown  for  them  ;  with  green  Indian-corn  fodder,  which 
had  been  sown  broadcast  for  the  purpose  ;  and  with 
about  three  pints  of  meal  a  day.  Their  produce  in  but- 
ter  was  kept  for  thirteen  weeks.  Two  of  them  were 
but  two  years  old,  having  calved  the  same  spring.  All 
the  milk  of  one  of  them  was  taken  by  her  call  six 
weeks  out  of  the  thirteen,  and  some  of  the  milk  of  the 
other  was  taken  for  family  use,  the  quantity  of  which 
was  not  measured.  These  heifers  could  not  be  esti- 
mated, therefore,  as  more  than  equal  to  one  cow  in  full 
milk.  And  yet  from  these  cows  no  less  than  three 
hundred  and  eighty-nine  pounds  of  butter  were  made  in 
the  thirteen  weeks.  Another  pound  would  have  made 
an  average  of  thirty  pounds  a  week  for  the  whole  time. 

It  appears  from  these,  and  other  similar  instances  of 
successful  soiling,  or  stall-feeding  in  summer  on  green 
crops  cut  for  the  purpose,  that  the  largely  increased 
quantity  of  the  yield  fully  counterbalances  the  slightly 
deteriorated  quality.  And  not  only  is  the  quantity 
yielded  by  each  cow  increased,  but  the  same  extent  of 
land,  under  good  culture,  will  carry  double  or  treble  the 
number  of  ordinary  pastures,  and  keep  them  in  better 
condition.  There  is  also  a  saving  of  manure.  But  with 
us  the  economy  of  soiling  is  the  exception,  and  not  the 
rule. 

In  adopting  this  system  of  feeding,  regularity  is 
required  as  much  as  in  any  other,  and  a  proper  variety 
of  food.  A  succession  of  green  crops  should  be 
provided,  as  near  as  convenient  to  the  stable.  The 
first  will  naturally  be  winter  rye,  in  the  Northern 
States,  as  that  shoots  up  with  great  luxuriance.  Win- 
ter rape  would  probably  be  an  exceedingly  valuable 
addition  to  the  plants  usually  cultivated  for  soiling 
in  this  country,  in  sections  where  it  withstands  the 
severity  of  the  winter.     Cabbages  kept  in  the  cellar,  or 


144  STILL-SLOPS. — SWILL-MILK. 

pit,  and  transplanted  early,  will  also  come  in  here  to 
advantage,  and  clover  will  very  soon  follow  them ; 
oats,  millet,  and  green  Indian-corn,  as  the  season  ad- 
vances:  and,  a  little  later  still,  perhaps,  the  Chinese 
sugar-cane,  which  should  not  be  cut  till  headed  out. 
These  plants,  in  addition  to  other  cultivated  grasses,  will 
furnish  an  unfailing  succession  of  succulent  and  tender 
fodder;  while  the  addition  of  a  little  Indian,  linseed, 
or  cotton-seed  meal  will  be  found  economical. 

In  the  vicinity  of  large  towns  and  cities,  where  the 
object  is  too  often  to  feed  for  the  largest  quantity, 
without  reference  to  quality,  an  article  known  as  dis- 
tillers' swill,  or  still-slop,  is  extensively  used.  This,  if 
property  fed  in  limited  quantities,  in  combination  with 
other  and  more  bulky  food,  may  be  a  valuable  article 
for  the  dairyman ;  but,  if  given,  as  it  too  often  is,  with- 
out the  addition  of  other  kinds  of  food,  it  soon  affects 
the  health  and  constitution  of  the  animals  fed  on  it. 
This  swill  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  water, 
some  nitrogenous  compounds,  and  some  inorganic  mat- 
ter, in  the  shape  of  phosphates  and  alkaline  salts  found 
in  the  different  kinds  of  grain  of  which  it  is  made  up, 
as  Indian  corn,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  <fcc.  Where  this 
forms  the  principal  food  of  milch  cows,  the  milk  is  of  a 
very  poor  quality  —  blue  in  color,  and  requiring  the 
addition  of  coloring  substances  to  make  it  salable.  It 
contains,  often,  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  butter,  a  ad 
seldom  over  one  and  three  tenths  or  one  and  a  half  per 
cent.,  while  good,  salable  milk  ought  to  contain  from 
three  to  five  per  cent.  It  will  not  coagulate,  it  is  said, 
in  less  than  five  or  six  hours,  while  good  milk  will 
invariably  coagulate  in  one  hour  or  less,  under  the 
same  conditions.  Its  effect  on  the  system  of  young 
children  is  therefore  very  destructive,  causing  diseases 
of  various  kinds,  and,  if  continued,  certain  death. 


STRUCTURE     OF    THE    UDDER.  145 

Milking. — The  manner  of  milking  exerts  a  more 
powerful  and  lasting  influence  on  the  productiveness  of 
the  cow  than  most  farmers  are  aware  of.  That  a  slow 
and  careless  milker  soon  dries  up  the  best  of  cows, 
every  practical  farmer  and  dairyman  knows  ;  but  a  care- 
ful examination  of  the  beautiful  structure  of  the  udder 
will  serve  further  to  explain  the  proper  mode  of  milking, 
to  obtain  and  keep  up  the  largest  yield.  "  The  udder 
of  a  cow,"  says  a  writer  in  the  Rural  Cyclopaedia,  "  is  a 
unique  mass,  composed  of  two  symmetrical  parts,  simply 
united  to  each  other  by  a  cellular  tissue,  lax,  and  very 
abundant ;  and  each  of  these  parts  comprises  two 
divisions  or  quarters,  which  consist  of  many  small 
granules,  and  are  connected  together  by  a  compact 
laminous  tissue;  and  from  each  quarter  proceed  systems 
of  ducts,  which  form  successive  unions  and  confluences, 
somewhat  in  the  manner  of  the  many  affluents  of  a 
large  river,  until  they  terminate  in  one  grand  excretory 
canal,  which  passes  down  through  the  elongated  mam- 
millary  body  called  the  teat.  Its  lactiferous  or  milk 
tubes,  however,  do  not,  as  might  be  supposed,  proceed 
exactly  from  smaller  to  larger  ducts  by  a  gradual  and 
regular  enlargement,  because  it  would  not  have  been 
proper  that  the  secretion  of  milk  should  escape  as  it 
was  formed;  and  therefore  we  find  an  apparatus  adapted 
for  the  purpose  of  retaining  it  for  a  proper  time.  This 
apparatus  is  to  be  found  both  in  the  teat  and  in  the  in- 
ternal construction  of  the  udder.  The  teat  resembles  a 
funnel  in  shape,  and  somewhat  in  office  ;  and  it  is  pos- 
sessed of  a  considerable  degree  of  elasticity.  It  seems 
formed  principally  of  the  cutis,  with  some  muscular 
fibres,  and  it  is  covered  on  the  outside  by  cuticle,  like 
every  other  part  of  the  body  ;  but  the  cuticle  here  not 
only  covers  the  exterior,  but  also  turns  upwards,  and 
lines  the  inside  of  the  extremity  of  the  teat,  as  far  as  it 
13  10 


146  MANNER     OF    MILKING. 

is  contracted,  and  there  terminates  by  a  frilled  edge, 
the  rest  of  the  interior  of  the  teats  and  ducts  being 
lined  by  mucous  membrane.  But,  as  the  udder  in  most 
animals  is  attached  in  a  pendulous  manner  to  the  body, 
and  as  the  weight  of  the  column  of  fluid  would  press 
with  a  force  which  would,  in  every  case,  overcome  the 
resistance  of  the  contractions  of  the  extremity,  or 
prove  oppressive  to  the  teat,  there  is  in  the  internal 
arrangement  of  the  udder  a  provision  made  to  obviate 
this  difficulty.  The  various  ducts,  as  they  are  united, 
do  not  become  gradually  enlarged  so  as  to  admit  the 
ready  flow  of  milk  ir  a  continual  stream  to  the  teat, 
but  are  so  arranged  as  to  take  off,  in  a  great  measure, 
the  extreme  pressure  to  which  the  teat  would  be  other- 
wise exposed.  Each  main  duct,  as  it  enters  into  another, 
has  a  contraction  produced,  by  which  a  kind  of  valvular 
apparatus  is  formed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  become 
pouches  or  sacks,  capable  of  containing  the  great  body 
of  the  milk.  In  consequence  of  this  arrangement,  it  is 
necessary  that  a  kind  of  movement  upwards,  or  lift, 
should  be  given  to  the  udder  before  the  teat  is  drawn, 
to  force  out  the  milk  ;  and  by  this  lift  the  milk  is  dis- 
placed from  these  pouches,  and  escapes  into  the  teat, 
and  is  then  easily  squeezed  out ;  while  the  contractions, 
or  pouches,  at  the  same  time  resist,  in  a  certain  degree, 
ithe  return  or  reflux  of  the  displaced  milk." 

The  first  requisite  of  a  good  milker  is,  of  course, 
the  utmost  cleanliness.  Without  this,  the  milk  is  unen- 
durable. The  udder  should,  therefore,  be  carefully 
cleaned  before  the  milking  commences.  The  milker 
may  begin  gradually  and  gently,  but  should  steadily 
increase  the  rapidity  of  the  operation  till  the  udder  is 
emptied,  using  a  pail  sufficiently  large  to  hold  all,  with 
out  the  necessity  of  changing.  Cows  are  very  sensi- 
tive,  and   the    pail   cannot   be  changed,  nor  can    the 


EFFECT    OF    CARELESS    MILKING.  147 

milker  stop  or  rise  during  the  process  of  milking,  with- 
out leading  the  co-w  more  or  less  to  withhold  her  milk. 
The  utmost  care  should  he  taken  to  strip  to  the  last  drop, 
and  to  do  it  rapidly,  and  not  in  a  slow  and  negligent 
manner,  which  is  sure  to  have  its  effect  on  the  yield  of 
the  cow.  If  any  milk  is  left,  it  is  reabsorbed  into  the 
system,  or  else  becomes  caked,  and  diminishes  the  tend- 
ency to  secrete  a  full  quantity  afterwards.  Milking  as 
dry  as  possible  is  especially  necessary  with  young  cows 
with  their  first  calf,  as  the  mode  of  milking,  and  the 
length  of  time  to  which  they  can  be  made  to  hold  out, 
will  have  very  much  to  do  with  their  milking  qualities 
as  long  as  they  live. 

At  the  age  of  two  or  three  years  the  milky  glands 
have  not  become  fully  developed,  and  their  largest 
development  will  depend  very  greatly  upon  the  man- 
agement after  the  first  calf.  Cows  should  have, 
therefore,  the  most  milk-producing  food  ;  be  treated 
with  constant  gentleness ;  never  struck,  or  spoken 
harshly  to,  but  coaxed  and  caressed ;  and  in  ninety-nine 
cases  out  of  a  hundred  they  will  grow  up  gentle  and 
quiet.  But  harshness  is  worse  than  useless.  Nothing 
does  so  much  to  dry  a  cow  up,  especially  a  young  cow. 

The  longer  the  young  cow,  with  her  first  and  sec- 
ond calf,  can  be  made  to  hold  out,  the  more  surely 
will  this  habit  be  fixed  upon  her.  Stop  milking  her 
four  months  before  the  next  calf,  and  it  will  be  dif- 
ficult to  make  her  hold  out  to  within  four  or  six 
weeks  of  the  time  of  calving  afterwards.  Induce  her, 
if  possible,  by  moist  and  succulent  food,  and  by  care- 
ful milking,  to  hold  out  even  up  to  the  time  of  calv- 
ing, if  you  desire  to  milk  her  so  long,  and  this  habit 
will  be  likely  to  be  fixed  upon  her  for  life.  But  do 
not  expect  to  obtain  the  full  yield  of  a  cow  the  first 
year  after  calving.     Some  of  the  very  best  cows  are 


148  GENTLE    TREATMENT. 

slow  to  develop  their  best  qualities  ;  and  no  cow  reaches 
her  prime  till  the  age  of  five  or  six  years. 

The  extreme  importance  of  care  and  attention  to 
these  points  cannot  be  over-estimated.  The  wild  cows 
grazing  on  the  plains  of  South  America  are  said  to  give 
only  about  three  or  four  quarts  a  day  at  the  height  of 
the  flow ;  and  many  an  owner  of  large  herds  in  Texas,  it 
is  said,  has  too  little  milk  for  family  use,  and  sometimes 
receives  his  supply  of  butter  from  the  New  York 
market.  There  is,  therefore,  a  constant  tendenc}7,  to  dry 
up  in  milch  cows  ;  and  it  must  be  guarded  against  with 
special  care,  till  the  habit  of  yielding  a  large  quantity, 
and  yielding  it  long,  becomes  fixed  in  the  young  animal, 
when,  with  proper  care,  it  may  easily  be  kept  up. 

If  gentle  and  mild  treatment  is  observed  and  perse- 
vered in,  the  operation  of  milking  appears  to  be  one  of 
pleasure  to  the  animal,  as  it  undoubtedly  is ;  but  if  an 
opposite  course  is  pursued,  —  if,  at  every  restless  move- 
ment, caused,  perhaps,  by  pressing  a  sore  teat,  the  animal 
13  harshly  spoken  to,  —  she  will  be  likely  to  learn  to  kick 
as  a  habit,  and  it  will  be  difficult  to  overcome  it  ever 
afterwards.  To  induce  quiet  and  readiness  to  give 
down  the  milk  freely,  it  is  better  that  the  cow  should 
be  fed  at  milking-time  with  cut  feed,  or  roots,  placed 
within  her  easy  reach. 

I  have  never  practised  milking  more  than  twice  a 
day,  because  in  spring  and  summer  other  farm-work 
was  too  pressing  to  allow  of  it;  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that,  for  some  weeks  after  calving,  and  in  the  height 
of  the  flow,  the  cows  ought,  if  possible,  to  be  milked 
regularly  three  times  a  day — at  early  morning,  noon,  and 
night,  Every  practical  dairyman  knows  that  cows  thus 
milked  give  a  larger  quantity  of  milk  than  if  milked 
only  twice,  though  it  may  not  be  quite  so  rich ;  and  in 
young  cows,  no  doubt,'it  has  a  tendency  to  promote  the 


DAIRY-MAIDS.  —  WARM    BARN.  149 

development  of  the  udder  and  milk-veins.  A  frequent 
milking  stimulates  an  increased  secretion,  therefore,  and 
ought  never  to  be  neglected  in  the  milk-dairy,  either 
in  the  case  of  young  cows  or  very  large  milkers,  at  the 
height  of  the  flow,  which  will  ordinarily  be  for  two  or 
three  months  after  calving. 

The  charge  of  this  branch  of  the  dairy  should  gen- 
erally be  intrusted  to  women.  They  are  more  gentle 
and  winning  than  men.  The  same  person  should  milk 
the  same  cow  regularly,  and  not  change  from  one  to 
another,  unless  there  are  special  reasons  for  it. 

There  being  a  wide  difference  in  the  quality  as  well 
as  in  the  quantity  of  milk  of  different  cows,  no  dairy- 
man should  neglect  to  test  the  milk  of  each  new  addi- 
tion to  his  dairy  stock,  whether  it  be  an  animal  of  his 
own  raising  or  one  brought  from  abroad.  A  lactometer 
is  a  very  convenient  instrument  here  ;  but  any  one  can 
set  the  milk  of  each  cow  separately  at  first,  and  give  it 
a  fair  and  full  trial,  when  the  difference  will  be  found 
to  be  great.  Economy  will  dictate  that  the  cows 
least  adapted  to  the  purpose  should  be  disposed  of,  and 
their. place  supplied  by  better  ones. 

The  Barn.  — The  management  of  dairy  stock  requires 
a  warm  and  well-ventilated  barn  or  cow-room,  in  latitudes 
where  it  becomes  necessary  to  stall-feed  during  several 
months  of  the  year.  This  should  be  arranged  in  a 
manner  suitable  to  keeping  hay  and  other  fodder  dry 
and  sweet,  and  with  reference  to  the  comfort  and  health 
of  animals,  and  the  economy  of  labor  and  manure.  The 
size  and  finish  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  wants  and 
means  of  the  farmer  or  dairyman ;  but  many  little  con- 
veniences can  be  added  at  trifling  cost. 

The  cow-room,  Fig.  56,  is  given  as  an  illustration 
merely  of  a  convenient  arrangement  for  a  medium-sized 
dairy,  and  not  as  adapted  to  all  circumstances  or  situ- 
13* 


150  DESCRIPTION    OF    PLAN. 

ations.  The  barn  stands,  we  will  suppose,  upon  a  side 
hill,  or  an  inclined  surface,  where  it  is  easy  to  have  a 
cellar,  if  it  is  desired ;  and  the  cow-room,  as  shown  in 
the  figure,  is  in  the  second  story,  or  directly  over  the 
cellar,  the  bottom  of  which  should  be  somewhat  dished; 
or  lower  in  the  middle  than  around  the  outer  sides,  and 
carefully  paved  or  laid  in  cement. 

The  cow-room,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  is  drawn  on  a 
scale  of  twenty  feet  to  the  inch.  On  the  outside  is 
represented  an  open  shed,  m.  for  carts  and  wagons  to 
remain  under  cover,  thirty  feet  by  fifteen,  while  I  1 11 11 
are  bins  for  vegetables,  to  be  filled  through  scuttles  from 
the  floor  of  the  story  above,  and  surrounded  by  solid 
walls.  The  area  of  this  whole  floor  equals  one  hundred 
feet  by  fifty-seven,  h,  open  space,  and  nearly  on  a 
level  with  the  cow-chamber,  through  the  door  p.  st 
stairs  to  third  story  and  to  the  cellar,  d  d  d,  passage 
next  to  the  walls,  five  feet  wide,  and  nine  inches  above 
the  dung-pit.  e  e  e,  dung-pit,  two  feet  wide,  and  seven 
inches  below  the  floor  where  the  cattle  stand.  The 
manure  drops  from  this  pit  into  the  cellar  below,  five 
feet  from  the  walls,  and  quite  round  the  cellar,  c  c  c/ 
plank  floor  for  cows,  four  feet  six  inches  long,  b  b  b, 
stalls  for  three  yoke  of  oxen,  on  a  platform  five  feet  six 
inches  long,  n  n,  calf-pens,  which  may  be  used  also 
for  cows  in  calving,  r  r,  feeding-troughs  for  calves. 
The  feeding-boxes  are  made  in  the  form  of  trays,  with 
partitions  between  them.  Water  comes  in  by  a  pipe, 
to  cistern  a.  This  cistern  is  regulated  by  a  cock  and 
ball,  and  the  water  flows  by  dotted  lines,  o  o  o,  to  the 
boxes,  and  each  box  is  connected  by  lead  pipes  well 
secured  from  frost,  so  that,  if  desired,  each  animal  can 
be  watered  without  leaving  the  stall,  or  water  can  be 
kept  constantly  before  it.  A  scuttle  by  which  sweep- 
ings, etc.,  may  be  put  through  into  the  cellar,  is  seen 


PLAN    OF    COW-ROOM. 


151 


at/,  g  is  a  bin  receiving  cut  hay  from  third  story,  or 
hay-room,  h  h  h  h  h  h,  bins  for  grain-feed,  i  is  a  tunnel 
to  conduct  manure  or  muck  from  the  hay-floor  to  the 
cellar,  jj,  sliding  doors  on  wheels.  The  cows  all  face 
towards  the  open  area  in  the  centre. 


152  DESCRIPTION    OF    PLAN. 

This  cow-room  may  be  furnished  with  a  thermom- 
eter, clock,  etc.,  and  should  always  be  well  ventilated 
by  sliding  windows,  which  at  the  same  time  admit  the 
light. 


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Fig.  67. 

Fig.  57  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  cow-room,  Fig. 
56,  a  being  a  walk  behind  the  cows,  five  feet  wide , 
b,  dung-pit ;  c,  cattle-stand ;  d,  feeding-trough,  with  a 
bottom  on  a  level  with  the  platform  where  the  cattle 
stand ;  h,  open  area,  forty-three  feet  by  fifty-six. 

The  story  above  the  cow-room,  Fig.  58,  is  one  hun 
dred  feet  by  forty-two,  the  bays  for  hay,  ten  on  each 
side,  being  ten  feet  front  and  fifteen  feet  deep,  and  the 
open  space,  p,  for  the  entrance  of  wagons,  carts,  etc., 
twelve  feet  wide,  b,  hay-scales,  c,  scale-beam,  m  mm 
m  m  m,  ladders  reaching  almost  to  the  roof.  I  I  I,  &c, 
scuttle-holes  for  sending  vegetables  direct  to  the  bins, 
I  I  I,  etc.,  below,  a  a  b  b,  rooms  on  the  corners  for 
storage,  d,  scuttles,  four  of  which  are  used  for  straw, 
one  for  cut  hay,  and  one  for  muck  for  the  cellar,  n 
and  the  other  small  squares  are  eighteen-feet  posts.  /, 
passage  to  the  tool-house,  a  room  one  hundred  feet 
long  by  fifteen  wide,  o,  stairs  leading  to  the  scaffold  in 
the  roof  of  the  tool-house,  i  i,  benches,  g,  floor.  h/ 
boxes  for  hoes,  shovels,  spades,  picks,  iron  bars,  old 
iron,  etc.  jjj,  bins  for  fruit,  k,  scuttles  to  put  apples 
into  wagons,  etc.,  in  the  shed  below.  One  side  of 
this  tool-house  may  be  used  for  ploughs  and  large 
implements,  hay-rigging,  harrows,  etc. 


PLAN     OF    BARN     FLOOR. 


153 


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Proper  ventilation  of  the  cellar  and  the  cow-room 
avoids  the  objection  that  the  hay  is  liable  to  injury 
from  noxious  gases. 


154  THE    BARN-CELLAR. 

The  excellent  manure-cellar  beneath  this  barn  extends 
only  under  the  cow-room.  It  has  a  drive-way  through 
doors  on  each  side.  No  barn-cellar  should  be  kept  shut 
up  tight,  even  in  cold  weather.  The  gases  are  con- 
stantly escaping  from  the  manure,  unless  held  by  absorb- 
ents, and  are  liable  not  only  to  affect  the  health  of  the 
stock,  but  to  injure  the  quality  of  the  hay.  To  prevent 
this,  and  yet  secure  the  important  advantages  of  a  ma- 
nure-cellar, the  barn  may  be  furnished  with  good-sized 
ventilators  on  the  top,  for  every  twenty-five  feet  of  its 
length,  and  with  wooden  tubes  leading  from  the  cellar 
to  the  top. 

There  should  also  be  windows  on  different  sides  of 
the  cellar,  to  admit  a  free  circulation  of  air.  With  these 
precautions,  together  with  the  use  of  absorbents  in  the 
shape  of  loam  and  muck,  there  will  be  no  danger  of 
rotting  the  timbers  of  the  barn,  or  of  risking  the  health 
of  the  cattle  or  the  quality  of  the  hay. 

The  temperature  at  which  the  cow-room  should  be 
kept  is  somewhere  from  50°  to  60°,  Fahr.  The  practice 
and  the  opinions  of  successful  dairymen  differ  on  this 
point.  Too  great  heat  would  affect  the  health  and  appe- 
tite of  the  herd,  while  too  low  a  temperature  is  equally 
objectionable,  for  various  reasons. 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE     RAISING     OF     CALVES. 

It  has  been  found  in  practice  that  calves  properly 
bred  and  raised  on  the  farm  have  a  far  greater  intrinsic 
value  for  that  farm,  other  things  being  equal,  than  any 
that  can  be  procured  elsewhere,  while  on  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  raised  will  depend  much  of  their 
future  usefulness  and  profit.  These  considerations 
should  have  their  proper  weight  in  the  decision  as  to 
whether  a  promising  calf  from  a  good  cow  and  bull 
shall  be  kept  or  sold  to  the  butcher.  But,  rather  than 
raise  a  calf  at  hap-hazard,  and  simply  because  its 
dam  was  celebrated  as  a  milker,  the  judicious  farmer 
will  judge  of  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  animal 
itself.  This  will  often  save  a  great  and  useless  outlay 
which  has  sometimes  been  incurred  in  raising  calves 
for  dairy  purposes,  that  a  more  careful  examination 
would  have  rejected  as  unpromising. 

The  method  of  judging  stock  developed  in  a  former 
chapter  is  of  practical  use  here,  and  it  is  safer  to  rely 
upon  it,  to  some  extent,  particularly  when  other  appear- 
ances concur,  than  to  go  on  blindly.  The  milk-mirror 
on  the  calf  is  small,  but  no  smaller  in  proportion  to  its 
size  than  that  of  the  cow ;  while  its  shape  and  form  can 
generally  be  distinctly  seen,  particularly  at  the  end  of 
ten  or  twelve  weeks.  The  development  of  the  udder, 
and  other  peculiarities,  will  give  some  indication  of  the 


156      RAISING    CALVES.  —  LOCAL    PRACTICES. 

future   capacities   of  the  animal,  and  these   should   be 
studied. 

If  we  except  the  manure  of  young  stock,  the  calf  is 
the  first  product  of  the  cow,  and  as  such  demands  our 
attention,  whether  it  is  to  be  raised  or  hurried  off  to 
the  shambles.  The  practice  adopted  in  raising  calves 
differs  widely  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  being- 
governed  very  much  by  local  circumstances,  as  the 
vicinity  of  a  milk-market,  the  value  of  milk  for  the 
dairy,  the  object  of  breeding,  whether  mainly  for  beef, 
for  work,  or  for  the  dairy,  etc. ;  but,  in  general,  it  may 
be  said  that,  within  the  range  of  thirty  or  forty  miles 
of  good  veal-markets,  which  large  towns  furnish,  com- 
paratively few  are  raised  at  all.  Most  of  them  are 
fatted  and  sold  at  ages  varying  from  three  to  eight  or 
ten  weeks ;  and  in  milk-dairies  still  nearer  large  towns 
and  cities  they  are  often  hurried  off  at  one  or  two 
days,  or,  at  most,  a  week  old.  In  both  of  these  cases, 
as  long  as  the  calf  is  kept  it  is  generally  allowed  to 
suckle  the  cow,  and,  as  the  treatment  is  very  simple,  there 
is  nothing  which  particularly  calls  for  remark,  unless 
it  be  to  condemn  the  practice  entirely,  on  the  ground 
that  there  is  a  more  profitable  way  even  for  fattening 
calves  for  the  butcher,  and  to  say  that  allowing  the  calf 
to  suck  the  cow  at  all  is  objectionable  on  the  score  of 
economy,  except  in  cases  where  it  is  rendered  neces- 
sary by  the  hard  and  swollen  condition  of  the  udder. 

If  the  calf  is  so  soon  to  be  taken  away,  I  should  pre- 
fer not  to  suffer  the  cow  to  become  attached  to  it  at 
all,  since  she  is  apt  to  withhold  her  milk  when  it  is 
removed,  and  a  loss  is  sustained.  The  farmer  will  be 
governed  by  the  question  of  profit,  whatever  course  it 
is  proposed  to  adopt.  In  raising  blood  stock,  however, 
or  in  raising  beef  cattle,  without  any  regard  to  economy 
of  milk,  the  svstem  of  suckling  the   calves,   01    letting; 


BRINGING    UP    BY    HAND.  157 

them  run  with  the  cow,  may  and  will  be  adopted,  since 
it  is  usually  attended  with  somewhat  less  labor. 

The  other  course,  which  is  regarded  as  the  best  where 
the  calf  is  to  be  raised  for  the  dairy,  is  to  bring  it  up 
by  hand.  This  is  done  almost  universally  in  all  coun- 
tries where  the  raising  of  dairy  cows  is  best  understood, 
—  in  Switzerland.  Holland,  some  parts  of  Germany,  and 
England.  It  requires  rather  more  care,  on  the  whole ; 
but  it  is  decidedly  preferable,  since  the  calves  cost  less, 
as  the  food  can  be  easily  modified,  and  the  growth  is 
not  checked,  as  it  is  apt  to  be  when  the  call  is  finally 
taken  off  from  the  cow.  I  speak,  of  course,  of  sections 
where  the  milk  of  the  cow  is  of  some  account  for  the 
dairy,  and  where  it  is  too  valuable  to  be  devoted  entirely. 
to  nourishing  the  calf.  In  this  case,  as  soon  as  the  calf 
is  dropped  the  cow  is  allowed  to  lick  off  the  slimy  moist- 
ure till  it  is  dry,  which  she  will  usually  do  from  instinct, 
or,  if  not,  a  slight  sprinkling  of  salt  over  the  body  of  the 
calf  will  immediately  tempt  her.  The  calf  is  left  to  suck 
once  or  twice,  which  it  will  do  as  soon  as  it  is  able  to 
stand.  It  should,  in  all  cases,  be  permitted  to  have  the 
first  milk  that  comes  from  the  cow,  which  is  of  a  turbid, 
yellowish  color,  unfit  for  any  of  the  purposes  of  the 
dairy,  but  somewhat  purgative  or  medicinal,  and  admir- 
ably and  wisely  designed  by  nature  to  free  the  bowels 
and  intestines  of  the  new-born  animal  from  the  mucous, 
excrementitious  matter  always  existing  in  them  after 
birth.  Too  much  of  this  new  milk  may,  however,  be 
hurtful  even  to  the  new-born  calf,  while  it  should  never 
be  given  at  all  to  older  calves.  The  best  course,  it 
seems  to  me,  —  and  I  speak  from  considerable  experi- 
ence, and  much  observation  and  inquiry  of  others, — is  to 
milk  the  cow  dry  immediately  after  the  calf  has  sucked 
once,  especially  if  the  udder  is  painfully  distended, 
which  is  often  the  case,  and  to  leave  the  calf  with  the 
14 


158  A     THRIFTY    START. 

cow  during  one  day,  and  after  that  to  feed  it  by  putting 
the  fingers  into  its  mouth,  and  gently  bringing  its 
muzzle  down  to  the  milk  in  a  pail  or  trough,  when  it 
will  imbibe  in  sucking  the  fingers.  I  have  never  found 
much  difficulty  in  teaching  the  calf  to  drink  when  taken 
so  young,  though  some  take  to  it  much  more  readily 
than  others.  What  the  calf  does  not  need  should  be 
given  to  the  cow.  Some,  however,  prefer  to  milk 
immediately  after  calving ;  and  if  the  udder  is  over- 
loaded this  may  be  the  best  course,  though  the  better 
practice  seems  to  be  to  leave  the  cow  as  quietly  to  her- 
self as  possible  for  a  few  hours.  The  less  she  is  dis- 
turbed, as  a  general  thing,  the  better.  The  after-birth 
should  be  taken  from  her  immediately  after  it  is 
dropped.  It  is  customary  to  give  the  cow,  as  soon  as 
convenient,  after  calving,  some  warm  and  stimulating 
drink,  —  a  little  meal  stirred  into  warm  water,  with  a 
part  of  the  first  milk  that  comes  from  her,  seasoned 
with  a  little  salt. 

In  many  cases  the  calf  is  taken  from  the  cow  imme- 
diately, and  before  she  has  seen  it,  to  a  warm,  dry  pen 
out  of  her  sight,  and  there  rubbed  till  thoroughly  dry  ; 
and  then,  when  able  to  stand,  fed  with  the  new  milk 
from  the  cow,  which  it  should  have  three  or  four  times 
a  day,  regularly,  for  the  first  fortnight,  whatever  course 
it  is  proposed  to  adopt  afterwards.  It  is  of  the  great- 
est importance  to  give  the  young  calf  a  thrifty  start. 
The  milk,  unless  coming  directly  from  the  cow,  should 
be  warmed. 

Some  object  to  removing  the  calf  from  the  cow  in  this 
way,  on  the  ground  of  its  apparent  cruelty.  But  the 
objection  to  letting  the  calf  suckle  the  cow  for  several 
days,  as  they  do,  or  indeed  of  leaving  it  with  the  cow 
for  any  length  of  time,  is,  that  she  invariably  becomes 
attached  to  it,  and  frets  and  withholds  her  milk  wheD 


HOW     THEY    DO     IN     HOLLAND.  159 

it  is  at  last  taken  from  her.  She  probably  suffers  a 
great  deal  more,  after  this  attachment  is  once  formed, 
at  the  removal  of  the  object  of  it,  than  she  does  at  its 
being  taken  at  once  out  of  her  sight.  The  cow's  mem- 
ory is  far  greater  than  many  suppose ;  and  the  loss  and 
injury  sustained  by  removing  the  calf  after  it  has  been 
allowed  to  suck  her  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  is 
never  known  exactly,  because  it  is  not  usually  known 
how  much  milk  the  calf  takes  ;  but  it  is,  without  doubt, 
very  considerable.  If  the  udder  is  all  right,  there  seems 
to  be  no  good  reason  for  leaving  the  calf  with  the  cow 
two  or  three  days,  if  it  is  then  to  be  taken  away. 

The  practice  in  Holland  is  to  remove  the  calf  from  the 
mother  even  before  it  has  been  licked,  and  to  take  it 
into  one  corner  of  the  barn,  or  into  another  building, 
out  of  the  cow's  sight  and  hearing,  put  it  upon  soft  dry 
straw,  and  rub  it  dry  with  some  hay  or  straw,  when  its 
tongue  and  gums  are  slightly  rubbed  with  salt,  and  the 
mucus  and  saliva  removed  from  the  nostrils  and  lips. 
After  this  has  been  done,  the  calf  is  made  to  drink  the 
milk  first  taken  as  it  comes  from  the  mother.  It  is 
slightly  diluted  with  water,  if  taken  last  from  the  udder ; 
but,  if  the  first  of  the  milking,  it  is  given  just  as  it  is. 
The  calf  is  taught  to  drink  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
this  country,  by  putting  the  fingers  in  its  mouth  and 
bringing  it  down  to  the  milk,  and  it  soon  gets  so  as  to 
drink  alone.  It  is  fed  at  first  from  four  to  six  times 
a  day,  or  even  oftener;  but  soon  only  three  times, 
at  regular  intervals.  Its  food  for  two  or  three  weeks 
is  clear  milk,  as  it  comes  warm  and  fresh  from  the 
cow.  This  is  never  omitted,  as  the  milk  during  the 
most  of  that  time  possesses  certain  qualities  which  are 
necessary  to  the  calf,  and  which  cannot  be  effectually 
supplied  by  any  other  food.  In  the  third  or  fourth 
week  the  milk  is  skimmed,  but  warmed  to  the  degree 


160  BEGINNING     TO     EAT. 

of  fresh  milk ;  though,  as  the  calf  grows  a  little  older, 
the  milk  is  given  cold,  while  less  care  is  taken  to  give 
it  the  milk  of  its  own  mother,  that  of  other  cows  now 
answering  equally  well.  In  some  places  calves  are  fed 
on  butter-milk  at  the  age  of  two  weeks  and  after  ;  but 
the  change  from  new  milk,  fresh  from  the  cow,  is  made 
gradually,  some  sweet  skim-milk  and  warm  water  being 
at  first  added  to  it. 

At  three  weeks  old,  or  thereabouts,  the  calf  will 
begin  to  eat  a  little  sweet,  fine  hay,  and  potatoes  cut 
fine,  and  it  very  soon  becomes  accustomed  to  this  food. 
Many  now  begin  to  give  linseed-meal  mixed  into  hot 
water,  to  which  is  added  some  skim-milk  or  butter-milk; 
and  others  use  a  little  bran  cooked  in  hay-tea,  made  by 
chopping  the  hay  fine,  and  pouring  on  boiling  hot  water, 
which  is  allowed  to  stand  a  while  on  it.  An  egg  is  fre- 
quently broken  into  such  a  mixture.  Others  still  at 
this  age  take  pains  to  have  fresh  linseed-cake,  broken 
into  pieces  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon's-egg ;  putting  one 
of  these  into  the  mouth  after  the  meal  of  milk  has  been 
finished,  and  when  it  is  eager  to  suck  at  anything  in 
its  way.  It  will  very  soon  learn  to  eat  linseed-meal. 
A  little  sweet  clover  is  put  in  its  way  at  about  the  age 
of  three  weeks,  and  it  will  soon  eat  that  also. 

In  this  manner  the  feeding  is  continued  from  the 
fourth  to  the  seventh  week,  the  quantity  of  solid  food 
being  gradually  increased.  In  the  sixth  or  seventh 
week  the  milk  is  by  degrees  withheld,  and  water  or 
butter-milk  used  instead  ;  and  soon  after  this,  green 
food  may  be  safely  given,  increasing  it  gradually  with 
the  hay  to  the  age  of  ten  or  twelve  weeks,  when  it  will 
do  to  put  them  upon  grass  alone,  if  the  season  is  favor- 
able for  it.  A  lot  as  near  the  house  as  possible,  where 
they  can  be  easily  looked  after  and  frequently  visited, 
is  best.     Calves  should  be  gradually  accustomed  to  all 


A    CRUEL     PRACTICE.  161 

changes ;  and  even  after  being  turned  to  pasture  they 
ought  to  be  taken  in  if  the  weather  is  not  dry  and 
warm.  The  want  of  care  and  attention  to  these  little 
details  will  be  apparent  sooner  or  later ;  while,  if  the 
farmer  give  his  own  time  to  these  matters,  he  will  be 
fully  paid  in  the  rapid  growth  of  his  calves.  It  is  espe- 
cially necessary  to  see  that  the  troughs  from  which 
they  are  fed,  if  troughs  are  used,  are  kept  clean  and 
sweet. 

But  there  are  some  even  among  intelligent  farmers 
who  make  a  practice  of  turning  their  calves  out  to 
pasture  at  the  tender  age  of  two  and  three  weeks, 
and  that,  too,  when  they  have  sucked  the  cow  up  to 
that  time,  and  allow  them  nothing  in  the  shape  of 
milk  or  tender  care.  I  cannot  but  think  that  this  is  the 
poorest  possible  economy,  to  say  nothing  of  the  cruelty 
of  such  treatment.  The  growth  of  the  calf  is  checked, 
and  the  system  receives  a  shock  from  so  sudden  a 
change,  from  which  it  cannot  soon  recover.  The  care- 
ful Dutch  breeders  bring  the  calves  either  skimmed  milk 
or  butter-milk  to  drink  several  times  a  day  after  they 
are  turned  to  grass,  which  is  not  till  the  age  of  ten  or 
twelve  weeks  ;  and,  if  the  weather  is  chilly,  the  milk  is 
warmed  for  them.  They  put  a  trough  generally  under 
a  covering,  where  the  calves  may  come  and  drink  at 
regular  times.     Thus  they  are  kept  tame  and  docile. 

In  the  raising  of  calves,  through  all  stages  of  their 
growth,  great  care  should  be  taken  neither  to  starve 
nor  to  over-feed.  A  calf  should  never  be  surfeited,  and 
never  be  fed  so  highly  that  it  cannot  be  fed  more  highly 
as  it  advances.  The  most  important  point  is  to  keep  it 
growing  thriftily  without  getting  too  fat,  if  it  is  to  be 
raised  for  the  dairy. 

Mr.  Aiton,  in  describing  the  mode  of  rearing  calves 
in  the  dairy  districts  of  Scotland,  says :  "  They  are  fed  on 
14*  11 


162  HOW     THEY    DO     IN    SCOTLAND. 

milk,  with  seldom  any  admixture ;  and  they  are  not  per- 
mitted to  suckle  their  dams,  but  are  taught  to  drink 
milk  by  the  hand  from  a  dish.  They  are  generally  fed 
on  milk  only  for  the  first  four,  five,  or  six  weeks,  and  are 
then  allowed  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  quarts  of  new 
milk  each  meal,  twice  in  the  twenty-four  hours.  Some 
never  give  them  any  other  food  when  young  except 
milk,  lessening  the  quantity  when  the  calf  begins  to 
eat  grass  or  other  food,  which  it  generally  does 
when  about  five  weeks  old,  if 'grass  can  be  had;  and 
withdrawing  it  entirely  about  the  seventh  or  eighth 
week  of  the  calf's  age.  But,  if  the  calf  is  reared 
in  winter,  or  early  in  spring,  before  the  grass  rises,  it 
must  be  supplied  with  at  least  some  milk  till  it  is  eight 
or  nine  weeks  old;  as  a  calf  will  not  so  soon  learn  to 
eat  hay  or  straw,  nor  fare  so  well  on  them  alone  as  it 
will  do  on  pasture.  Some  feed  their  calves  reared  for 
stock  partly  with  meal  mixed  in  the  milk  after  the 
third  or  fourth  week.  Others  introduce  gradually  some 
new  whey  among  the  milk,  first  mixed  with  meal ; 
and,  when  the  calf  gets  older,  they  withdraw  the  milk, 
and  feed  it  on  whey  and  porridge.  Hay-tea,  juices  of 
peas  and  beans,  or  pea  or  bean  straw,  linseed  beaten 
into  powder,  treacle,  <fcc,  have  all  been  sometimes  used 
to  advantage  in  feeding  calves  ;  but  milk,  when  it  can 
be  spared,  is  by  far  their  most  natural  food. 

"  In  Galloway,  and  other  pastoral  districts,  where  the 
calves  are  allowed  to  suckle,  the  people  are  so  much 
wedded  to  their  own  customs  as  to  argue  that  suckling  is 
much  more  nutritive  to  the  calves  than  any  other  mode 
of  feeding.  That  suckling  induces  a  greater  secretion 
of  saliva,  which,  by  promoting  digestion,  accelerates  the 
growth  and  fattening  of  the  young  animal,  cannot  be 
doubted  ;  but  the  secretion  of  that  fluid  may  likewise 
be  promoted  by  placing  an  artificial  teat  in  the  mouth 


FEEDING    BY    HAND.  163 

of  the  calf,  and  giving  it  the  milk  slowly,  and  at  the 
natural  temperature.  In  the  dairy  districts  of  Scot- 
land, the  dairy-maid  puts  one  of  her  fingers  into  the 
mouth  of  the  calf,  when  it  is  fed,  which  serves  the 
purpose  of  a  teat,  and  will  have  nearly  the  same  effect 
as  the  natural  teat,  in  inducing  the  secretion  of  saliva. 
If  that,  or  an  artificial  teat  of  leather,  be  used,  and  the 
milk  given  slowly  before  it  is  cold,  the  secretion  of  sal- 
iva may  be  promoted  to  all  the  extent  that  can  be  neces- 
sary ;  besides,  that  secretion  is  not  confined  to  the  mere 
period  of  eating,  but,  as  in  the  human  body,  the  saliva 
is  formed  and  part  of  it  swallowed  at  all  times.  As 
part  of  the  saliva  is  sometimes  seen  dropping  from  the 
mouths  of  the  calves,  it  might  be  advisable  to  give  them 
not  only  an  artificial  teat,  when  fed,  but  to  place,  as  is 
frequently  done,  a  lump  of  chalk  before  them  to  lick, 
thus  leading  them  to  swallow  the  saliva.  The  chalk 
would  so  far  supply  the  want  of  salt,  of  which  cattle 
are  so  improperly  deprived,  and  it  would  also  promote 
the  formation  of  saliva.  Indeed,  calves  are  much  dis- 
posed to  lick  and  suckle  everything  that  comes  within 
their  reach,  which  seems  to  be  the  way  that  nature 
teaches  them  to  supply  their  stomachs  with  saliva. 

"  But,  though  suckling  their  dams  may  be  most  advan- 
tageous in  that  respect,  yet  it  has  also  some  disadvan- 
tages. The  cow  is  always  more  injured  than  the  calf  is 
benefited,  by  that  mode  of  feeding.  She  becomes  so 
fond  of  the  calf  that  she  does  not,  for  a  long  time  after 
yield  her  milk  freely  to  the  dairy-maid.  The  calf  does 
not  when  young  draw  off  the  milk  completely,  and 
when  it  is  taken  off  by  the  hand  the  cow  withholds 
part  of  her  milk ;  and,  whenever  a  cow's  udder  is  not 
completely  emptied  every  time  she  is  milked,  the  lactic 
secretion  is  thereby  diminished. 

"  Feeding  of  calves  by  the  hand  is  in  various  other 


164  PATIENCE     AND     KINDNESS. 

respects  advantageous.  Instead  of  depending  on  the 
uncertain  or  perhaps  precarious  supply  of  the  dam. 
which  may  be  more  at  first  than  the  young  animal  can 
consume  or  digest,  and  at  other  times  too  little  for  its 
supply,  its  food  can,  by  hand-feeding,  be  regulated  tc 
suit  the  age,  appetite,  and  purposes  for  which  the  calf 
is  intended ;  other  admixtures  or  substitutes  can  be 
introduced  into  the  milk,  and  the  quantity  gradually 
increased  or  withdrawn  at  pleasure.  This  is  highly 
necessary  when  the  calves  are  reared  for  stock.  The 
milk  is  in  that  case  diminished,  and  other  food  intro- 
duced so  gradually  that  the  stomach  of  the  young  ani 
mal  is  not  injured  as  it  is  when  the  food  is  too  suddenly 
changed.  And,  in  the  case  of  feeding  of  calves  for  the 
butcher,  the  quantity  of  milk  is  not  limited  to  that  of 
the  dam  (for  no  cow  will  allow  a  stranger  calf  to  suckle 
her),  but  it  can  be  increased,  or  the  richest  or  poorest 
parts  of  the  milk  given,  at  pleasure.'' 

In  these  districts,  where,  probably,  the  feeding  and 
management  of  calves  is  as  well  and  judiciously  con- 
ducted as  in  any  other  part  of  Britain,  the  farmers' 
wives  and  daughters,  or  female  domestics,  have  the 
principal  charge  of  young  calves  ;  and  they  are,  no 
doubt,  much  better  calculated  for  this  duty  than  men, 
since  they  are  more  inclined  to  be  gentle  and  patient. 
The  utmost  gentleness  should  always  be  observed  in 
the  treatment  of  all  stock  ;  but  especially  of  milch  cows, 
and  calves  designed  for  the  dairy.  Persevering  kind- 
ness and  patience  will,  almost  invariably,  overcome  the 
most  obstinate  natures ;  while  rough  and  ungentle  hand- 
ling will  be  repaid  in  a  quiet  kind  of  way,  perhaps,  by 
withholding  the  milk,  which  will  always  have  a  tendency 
to  dry  a  cow  up ;  or,  what  is  nearly  as  bad,  by  kicking, 
and  other  modes  of  revenge,  which  often  contribute  to 
the  personal  discomfort  of  the  milker.     The  disposition 


GENTLE    TREATMENT. HAY-TEA.  165 

of  the  cow  is  greatly  modified,  if  not,  indeed,  wholly 
formed,  by  her  treatment  while  young ;  and  therefore 
it  is  best  to  handle  calves  as  much  as  possible,  and 
make  pets  of  them,  lead  them  with  a  halter,  and  caress 
them  in  various  ways.  Calves  managed  in  this  way 
will  always  be  docile,  and  suffer  themselves  to  be 
approached  and  handled  both  in  the  pasture  and  the 
barn. 

With  respect  to  the  use  of  hay-tea,  often  used  in  this 
country,  but  more  common  abroad,  where  greater  care 
and  attention  is  usually  given  to  the  details  of  breeding, 
Youatt  says:  "At  the  end  of  three  or  four  days,  or  per- 
haps a  toeek,  or  even  a  fortnight,  after  a  calf  has  been 
dropped,  and  the  first  passages  have  been  cleansed  by 
allowing  it  to  drink  as  much  of  the  cow's  milk  as  it  feels 
inclined  for,  let  the  quantity  usually  allotted  for  a  meal 
be  mixed,  consisting,  for  the  first  week,  of  three  parts 
milk  and  one  part  hay-tea.  The  only  nourishing  infu- 
sion of  hay  is  that  which  is  made  from  the  best  and  sweet- 
est hay,  cut  by  a  chaff-cutter  into  pieces  about  two  inches 
long,  and  put  into  an  earthen  vessel ;  over  this  boiling 
water  should  be  poured,  and  the  whole  allowed  to  stand 
for  two  hours,  during  which  time  it  ought  to  be  kept 
carefully  closed.  After  the  first  week,  the  proportions 
of  milk  and  hay-tea  may  be  equal ;  then  composed  of 
two  thirds  of  hay-tea  and  one  of  milk ;  and  at  length  one 
fourth  part  of  milk  will  be  sufficient.  This  food  should 
be  given  to  the  calf  in  a  lukewarm  state  at  least  three, 
if  not  four  times  a  day,  in  quantities  averaging  three 
quarts  at  each  meal,  but  gradually  increasing  to  four 
quarts  as  the  calf  grovis  older.  Toioards  the  end  of  the 
second  month,  beside  the  usual  quantity  given  at  each 
meal  (composed  of  three  parts  of  the  infusion  and  one 
of  milk),  a  small  wisp  or  bundle  of  hay  is  to  be  laid 
before  the  calf,  which  will  gradually  come  to  eat  it;  but, 


166   FIRS1     CALVES.  —  RESULTS    OF    EXPERIMENTS. 

if  the  weather  is  favorable,  as  in  the  month  of  May,  the 
beast  may  be  turned  out  to  graze  in  a  fine,  sweet  pas- 
ture, well  sheltered  from  the  wind  and  sun.  This  diet 
may  be  continued  until  towards  the  latter  end  of  the 
third  month,  when,  if  the  calf  grazes  heartily,  each  meal 
may  be  reduced  to  less  than  a  quart  of  milk,  with  hay- 
water  ;  or  skimmed  milk  or  fresh  butter-milk  may  be 
substituted  for  new  milk.  At  the  expiration  of  the 
third  month  the  animal  will  hardly  require  to  be  fed  by 
hand,  though,  if  this  should  still  be  necessary,  one  quart 
of  the  infusion  given  daily,  and  which  during  the  sum- 
mer need  not  be  warmed,  will  be  sufficient."  The  hay- 
tea  should  be  made  fresh  every  two  days,  as  it  soon 
loses  its  nutritious  quality. 

This  and  other  preparations  are  given  not  because 
they  are  better  than  milk,  than  which  nothing  is  better 
adapted  to  fatten  a  calf,  or  promote  its  growth,  but  sim- 
ply to  economize  by  providing  the  most  suitable  and 
cheaper  substitutes.  Experience  shows  that  the  first 
two  or  three  calves  are  smaller  than  those  that  follow ; 
and  hence,  unless  they  are  pure-bred,  and  to  be  kept  for 
the  blood,  they  are  not  generally  thought  to  be  so  desir- 
able to  raise  for  the  dairy  as  the  third  or  fourth,  and 
those  that  come  after,  up  to  the  age  of  nine  or  ten 
years.     On  this  point  opinions  differ. 

According  to  the  comparative  experiments  of  a  Ger- 
man agriculturist,  cows  which  as  calves  had  been 
allowed  to  suckle  their  dams  from  two  to  four  weeks 
brought  calves  which  weighed  only  from  thirty-five  to 
forty-eight  pounds  ;  while  others,  which,  as  calves,  had 
been  allowed  to  suckle  from  five  to  eight  weeks, 
brought  calves  weighing  from  sixty  to  eighty  pounds. 
It  is  difficult  to  see  how  there  can  be  so  great  a  differ- 
ence, if,  indeed,  there  is  any ;  but  it  may  be  worthy  of 
careful   observation   and  experiment,  and  as  such  it  is 


AFTER-FEEDING.  167 

stated  in  this  connection.  The  increased  size  of  the 
calf  would  be  due  to  the  larger  size  to  which  the  cow 
would  attain ;  and  if  as  a  calf  she  were  allowed  to  ruD 
with  her  dam  in  the  pasture  four  or  five  months,  taking 
all  the  milk  she  wanted,  she  would  doubtless  be  kept 
growing  on  in  a  thriving  condition.  But  taking  a  calf 
from  the  cow  at  four  or  even  eight  weeks  must  check 
its  growth  to  some  extent,  and  this  may  be  avoided  by 
feeding  liberally,  and  bringing  up  by  hand. 

After  the  calf  is  fully  weaned,  there  is  nothing  very 
peculiar  in  the  general  management.  A  young  animal 
will  require  for  the  first  few  months  —  say  up  to  the 
age  of  six  months  —  an  average  of  five  or  six  pounds 
daily  of  good  hay,  or  its  equivalent.  At  the  age  of  six 
months  it  will  require  from  four  and  a  half  to  five 
pounds,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  from  three  and  a 
half  to  four  pounds  of  good  hay,  or  its  equivalent,  for 
every  one  hundred  pounds  of  its  live  weight;  or,  in 
other  words,  about  three  and  a  half  or  four  per  cent,  of 
its  live  weight.  At  two  years  old  it  will  require  three 
and  a  half,  and  some  months  later  three  per  cent,  of 
its  live  weight  daily  in  good  hay  or  its  equivalent.  In 
dian-corn  fodder,  either  green  or  cured,  forms  an  excel- 
lent and  wholesome  food  at  this  age. 

The  heifer  should  not  be  pampered,  nor  yet  poorly 
fed  or  half  starved,  so  as  to  receive  a  check  in  her 
growth.  An  abundant  supply  of  good  healthy  dairy 
food  and  drink  will  do  all  that  is  necessary  up  to  the- 
time  of  having  her  first  calf,  which  should  not  ordinarily 
be  till  the  age  of  three  years,  though  some  choose  to- 
allow  them  to  come  in  at  two  or  a  little  over,  on  the 
ground  that  it  early  stimulates  the  secretion  of  milk, 
and  that  this  will  increase  the  milking  propensity 
through  life.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  case,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule;  but  I  think  greater  injury  is  done  by  checking 


168  A    SURPRISE. — SUCCULENT    FOOD. 

the  growth,  unless  the  heifer  has  been  fed  up  to  large 
size  and  full  development  from  the  start,  in  which  case 
she  may  perhaps  take  the  bull  at  fifteen  or  eighteen 
months  without  injury.  I  have  had  several  come  in  as 
early  as  two  years,  and  one  at  less  than  twenty  months. 
This  last  was  not  by  design,  however,  and  I  would 
rather  have  given  a  considerable  sum  than  had  it  hap- 
pen, as  she  was  an  exceedingly  beautiful  pure-bred  Jer- 
sey, and  I  was  desirous  to  have  her  attain  to  good  size 
and  growth.  Even  if  a  heifer  comes  in  at  two  years,  it 
is  generally  thought  desirable  to  let  her  run  farrow  for 
the  following  year,  which  will  promote  her  growth  and 
more  perfect  development. 

The  feeding  which  young  stock  often  get  is  not  such 
as  is  calculated  to  make  good-sized  or  valuable  cattle  of 
them.  They  are  often  fed  on  the  poorest  of  hay  or 
straw  through  the  winter,  not  unfrequently  left  exposed 
to  cold,  unprotected  and  unhoused,  and  thus  stinted  in 
their  growth.  This  seems  to  me  to  be  the  very  worst 
economy,  or  rather  no  economy  at  all.  Properly  viewed, 
it  is  an  extravagant  wastefulness  which  no  farmer  can 
afford.  No  animal  develops  its  good  points  under  such 
treatment ;  and  if  the  starving  system  is  to  be  followed 
at  all,  it  had  better  be  after  the  age  of  two  or  three 
years,  when  the  animal's  constitution  has  attained 
strength  and  vigor  to  resist  ill  treatment. 

To  raise  up  first-rate  milkers,  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  feed  on  dairy  food  even  while  young.  No 
matter  how  fine  the  breed  is,  if  the  calf  is  raised  on 
poor,  short  feed,  it  will  never  be  so  good  a  milker  as  if 
raised  on  better  keeping;  and  hence,  in  dairy  dis- 
tricts, where  calves  are  raised  at  all,  they  ought  to  be 
allowed  the  best  pasture  during  the  summer,  and  good 
sweet  and  wholesome  food  during  the  winter. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

CULTURE    OF    GRASSES    AND     OTHER    PLANTS     REC- 
OMMENDED    FOR    FODDER. 

As  already  stated,  the  grasses  in  summer,  and  hay  in 
winter,  form  the  most  natural  and  important  food  for 
milch  cows  ;  and,  whatever  other  crops  come  in  as  ad- 
ditional, these  will  form  the  basis  of  all  systems  of 
feeding. 

The  nutritive  qualities  of  the  grasses  differ  widely ; 
and  their  value  as  feed  for  cows  will  depend,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  on  the  management  of  pastures  and 
mowing-lands. 

If  the  turf  of  an  old  pasture  is  carefully  examined,  it 
will  be  found  to  contain  a  large  variety  of  grasses  and 
plants  adapted  for  forage  ;  some  of  them  valuable  for 
one  purpose,  and  some  for  another.  Some  of  them, 
though  possessing  a  lower  percentage  of  nutritive 
constituents  than  others,  are  particularly  esteemed  for 
an  early  and  luxuriant  growth,  furnishing  a  sweet  feed 
in  early  spring,  before  other  grasses  appear  ;  some  of 
them,  for  starting  more  rapidly  than  others,  after  being 
eaten  off  by  cattle,  and  consequently  of  great  value  as 
pasture  grasses.  Most  grasses  wTill  be  found  to  be  of  a 
social  character,  and  to  do  best  in  a  large  mixture  with 
other  varieties. 

In  forming  a  mixture  for  pasture  grasses,  the  pecu- 
liarities of  eacli  species  should,  therefore,  be  regarded  : 
15 


170  CULTIVATED    GRASSES. — TIMOTHY. 

as  the  time  of  flowering,  the  habits  of  growth,  the  soil 
and  location  on  which  it  grows  best,  and  other  charac- 
teristics. Among  the  grasses  found  on  cultivated 
lands,  in  this  country,  the  following  are  considered  as 
among  the  most  valuable  for  ordinary  farm  cultivation; 
some  of  them  adapted  to  pastures,  and  others  almost 
exclusively  to  mowing  and  the  hay  crop:  Timothy 
(Phleum  pratense).  Meadow  Foxtail  (Alopecurus  pra- 
temis).  June,  or  Kentucky  Blue  Grass  (Poa  pratensis). 
Fowl  meadow  (Poa  serotina).  Rough-stalked  Meadow 
(Poa  trivialis).  Orchard  Grass  (Dactylis  glomerata). 
Perennial  Rye  Grass  (Lolium  perenne).  Italian  Rye 
Grass  (Lolium  italicum).  Redtop  (Agrostis  vulgaris). 
English  Bent  (Agrostis  alba).  Meadow  Fescue  (Fes- 
tuca  pratensis).  Tall  Oat  Grass  (Arrhenatherum  aven- 
aceum).  Sweet-scented  Vernal  ( Anthoxanthemum  odor- 
atum).  Hungarian  Grass  (Panicum  Germanicum). 
Red  Clover  (Trifolium  pratense).  White  or  Dutch 
Clover  (Trifolium  repens),  and  some  others. 

Of  these,  the  most  valuable,  all  things  considered,  is  the 
first,  or  Timothy  (Fig.  56).  It  forms  a  large  proportion 
of  what  is  commonly  called  English,  or  in  some  sections 
meadow  hay,  though  it  originated  and  was  first  culti- 
vated in  this  country.  It  contains  a  large  percentage 
of  nutritive  matter,  in  comparison  with  other  agricul- 
tural grasses.  It  thrives  best  on  moist,  peaty,  or  loamy 
soils,  of  medium  tenacity,  and  is  not  well  suited  to  very 
light,  sandy  lands.  On  very  moist  soils  its  root  is 
almost  always  fibrous  ;  while  on  dry  and  loamy  ones  it  is 
bulbous.  On  soils  of  the  former  description,  which  it 
especially  affects,  its  growth  is  rapid,  and  its  yield  of 
hay  large,  sometimes  amounting  to  three  and  four  tons 
to  the  acre,  depending  much,  of  course,  on  cultivation. 
But,  though  very  valuable  for  hay,  it  is  not  adapted  to 
pastures,  as  it  will  neither  endure  severe  grazing,  nor 


TIMOTHY.  —  JUNE    GRASS. 


171 


Fig.  56.    Timothy  grass.  Fig  57.    June  grass. 

is  its  aftermath  to  be  compared  with  meadow  foxtail 
and  some  of  the  other  grasses. 


172      JUNE  GRASS.  —  MEADOW  FOXTAIL. 

June  grass  (Fig.  57),  better  known  in  some  sections  as 
Kentucky  Blue  grass,  is  very  common  in  most  sections 
of  the  country,  especially  on  limestone  lands,  forming  a 
large  part  of  the  turf,  wherever  it  flourishes,  and  being 
universally  esteemed  as  a  pasture  grass.  It  starts  early, 
but  varies  much  in  size  and  appearance,  according  to 
the  soil;  growing  in  some  places  with  the  utmost  luxuri- 
ance, and  forming  the  predominant  grass  ;  in  others, 
yielding  to  the  other  species.  If  cut  at  the  time  of 
flowering,  or  a  few  days  after,  it  makes  a  good  and 
nutritive  hay,  though  it  is  surpassed  in  nutritive  quali 
ties  by  several  of  the  other  grasses.  It  starts  slowly 
after  being  cut,  especially  if  not  cut  very  early.  But 
its  herbage  is  fine  and  uniform,  and  admirably  adapted 
to  lawns,  growing  well  in  almost  all  soils,  though  it  does 
not  endure  very  severe  droughts.  It  withstands,  how- 
ever, the  frosts  of  winter  better  than  most  other  grasses. 

In  Kentucky,  a  section  where  it  attains  its  high- 
est perfection  and  luxuriance,  ripening  its  seed  about 
the  10th  of  June,  and  in  latitudes  south  of  that,  it  some- 
times continues  green  through  the  mild  winters.  It 
requires  three  or  four  years  to  become  well  set,  after 
sowing,  and  it  does  not  attain  its  highest  yield  as  a  pas- 
ture grass  till  the  sod  is  even  older  than  that.  It  is 
not,  therefore,  suited  to  alternate  husbandry,  where 
land  usually  remains  in  grass  but  two  or  three  years 
before  being  ploughed  up.  In  Kentucky  it  is  sown 
any  time  in  winter  when  the  snow  is  on  the  ground, 
three  or  four  quarts  of  seed  being  used  to  the  acre. 
In  spring  the  seeds  germinate,  when  the  sprouts  are 
exceedingly  fine  and  delicate.  Stock  is  not  allowed  on 
it  the  first  year. 

The  Meadow  Foxtail  (Fig.  58)  is  also  an  excellent  pas- 
ture grass.  It  somewhat  resembles  Timothy,  but  is  ear 
lier,  has  a  softer  spike,  and  thrives  on  all  soils  except  the 


PASTURE    GRASSES. 


173 


Fig.  58.   Meadow  Foxtail 


Orchard  grass. 


dry  est.     Its  growth  is  rapid,  and  it  is  greatly  relished  by 
stock  of  all  kinds.     Its  stalk  and  leaves  are  too  few  and 
light  for  a  field  crop,  and  it  shrinks  too  much  in  curing  to 
15* 


174  ORCHARD     GRASS.  —  QUALITIES. 

be  valuable  for  hay.  It  flourishes  best  in  a  rich,  moist, 
and  rather  strong  soil,  sending  up  a  luxuriant  aftermath 
when  cut  or  grazed  off,  which  is  much  more  valuable, 
both  in  quantity  and  nutritive  value,  than  the  first  crop. 
In  all  lands  designed  for  permanent  pasture,  therefore. 
it  should  form  a  considerable  part  of  a  mixture.  It  will 
endure  almost  any  amount  of  forcing,  by  liquid  manures, 
or  irrigation.  It  requires  three  or  four  years,  after 
sowing,  to  gain  a  firm  footing  in  the  soil.  The  seed  is 
covered  with  the  soft  and  woolly  husks  of  the  flower, 
and  is  consequently  light ;  weighing  but  five  pounds  to 
the  bushel,  and  containing  seventy-six  thousand  seeds  to 
the  ounce. 

The  Orchard  grass,  or  Rough  Cocksfoot  (Fig.  59),  for 
pastures,  stands  preeminent.  This  is  a  native  of  this  coun- 
try, and  was  introduced  into  England,  from  Virginia,  in 
1764,  since  which  time  its  cultivation  has  extended  into 
every  country  of  Europe,  where  it  is  universally  held 
in  very  high  estimation.  The  fact  of  its  being  very  palata- 
ble to  stock  of  all  kinds,  its  rapidity  of  growth,  and  the 
luxuriance  of  its  aftermath,  with  its  power  of  enduring 
the  cropping  of  cattle,  have  given  it  a  very  high  reputa- 
tion, especially  as  a  pasture  grass.  It  blossoms  earlier 
than  Timothy;  when  green  is  equally  relished  by  milch 
cows ;  requires  to  be  fed  closer,  to  prevent  its  forming 
tufts  and  growing  up  to  seed,  when  it  becomes  hard  and 
wiry,  and  loses  much  of  its  nutritive  quality.  Aa  it 
blossoms  about  the  same  time,  it  forms  an  admirable 
mixture  with  red  clover,  either  for  permanent  pasture 
or  mowing.  It  resists  drought,  and  is  less  exhausting 
to  the  soil  than  either  rye  grass  or  Timothy.  The 
seed  weighs  twelve  pounds  to  the  bushel,  and  when 
sown  alone  requires  about  two  bushels  to  the  acre. 

The  Rough-stalked  Meadow  grass  (Fig.  60)  is  some- 
what less  common  than  June  grass,  but  is  considered  as 


ROUGH-STALKED    MEADOW     GRASS.  175 


fig.  60.    Rough-stalked  Meadow  grass. 


Fig.  61.    Rye  grass. 


equally  valuable.  It  grows  best  on  moist,  sheltered  mead- 
ows, where  it  flowers  in  June  and  July.    It  is  easily  dis- 


176  FOWL    MEADOW. 

tinguished  from  June  grass,  by  having  a  rough  sheath, 
while  the  latter  has  a  smooth  one,  and  by  having  a  fibrous 
root,  while  the  root  of  June  grass  is  creeping.  It 
possesses  very  considerable  nutritive  qualities,  and 
comes  to  perfection  at  a  desirable  time  ;  is  exceed- 
ingly relished  by  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep.  For  suitable 
soils  it  should  form  a  portion  of  a  mixture  of  seeds,  pro- 
ducing, in  mixture  with  other  grasses  which  serve  to 
shelter  it,  a  large  yield  of  hay,  far  above  the  average  of 
grass  usually  grown  on  a  similar  soil.  It  should  be  cut 
when  the  seed  is  formed.  Seven  pounds  of  seed  to 
the  acre  will  produce  a  good  sward.  The  grass  loses 
about  seventy  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  drying.  The 
nutritive  qualities  of  its  aftermath  exceed  very  consid- 
erably those  of  the  crop  cut  in  the  flower  or  in  the 
seed. 

Fowl  Meadow  grass  is  another  indigenous  species, 
of  great  value  for  low  and  marshy  grounds,  where  it 
flourishes  best ;  and,  if  cut  and  properly  cured,  makes 
a  sweet  and  nutritious  hay,  which,  from  its  fineness,  is 
eaten  by  cows  without  waste.  According  to  Sinclair, 
who  experimented,  with  the  aid  of  Sir  Humphrey  Davy, 
to  ascertain  its  comparative  nutritive  properties,  it  is 
superior,  in  this  respect,  to  either  meadow  foxtail, 
orchard  grass,  or  tall  meadow  oat  grass  ;  but  it  is 
probable  that  he  somewhat  overrates  it.  If  allowed  to 
stand  till  nearly  ripe,  it  falls  down,  but  sends  up  innu- 
merable flowering  stems  from  the  joints,  so  that  it  con- 
tinues green  and  luxuriant  till  late  in  the  season.  It 
thrives  best  in  mixture  with  other  grasses,  and  deserves 
a  prominent  place  in  all  mixtures  for  rich,  moist  pastures; 
and  low  mowing-lands. 

Rye  grass  (Fig.  61)  has  a  far  higher  reputation  abroad 
than  in  this  country,  and  probably  with  reason  ;  for  it  is 
better  adapted  to  a  wet  and  uncertain  climate  than  to  a 


ITALIAN     RYE    GRASS. —  REDTOP.  177 

dry  and  hot  one.  It  varies  exceedingly,  depending  much 
on  soil  and  culture  ;  but,  when  cut  in  the  blossom  to 
make  into  hay,  it  possesses  very  considerable  nutritive 
power.  If  allowed  to  get  too  ripe,  it  is  hard  and  wiry, 
and  not  relished  by  cows.  The  change  froni  a  juicy 
and  nutritious  plant  to  woody  fibre,  possessing  but 
little  soluble  matter,  is  very  rapid.  Properly  managed, 
however,  it  is  a  tolerably  good  grass,  though  not  to  be 
compared  to  Timothy,  or  orchard  grass. 

Italian  Rye  grass  (Fig.  62)  has  also  been  cultivated  to 
considerable  extent  in  this  country,  but  with  less  satisfac- 
tory results  than  are  obtained  from  it  in  Europe,  where  it 
endures  all  climates,  giving  better  crops,  both  in  quan- 
tity and  quality,  than  the  perennial  rye  grass.  It  is  one 
of  the  greatest  gluttons  of  all  the  grasses,  and  luxu- 
riates in  frequent  irrigation  with  liquid  manure,  though 
it  is  said  to  stand  the  drought  very  well.  The  soils 
best  adapted  to  it  are  rich,  moist,  and  fertile,  of  medium 
tenacity;  and  it  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  purposes  of 
soiling,  as  it  endures  repeated  cutting,  rapidly  sending 
up  luxuriant  crops.  For  rich  soils  near  the  barn,  used 
for  the  growth  of  crops  for  soiling,  therefore,  it  may  be 
confidently  used  as  a  profitable  addition  to  our  list  of 
cultivated  grasses. 

Redtop  (Fig.  63)  is  a  grass  familiar  to  every  farmer  in 
the  country.  It  is  the  Herd's  grass  of  Pennsylvania,  while 
in  New  York  and  New  England  it  is  known  by  a  great 
variety  of  names,  and  assumes  a  great  variety  of  forms, 
according  to  the  soil  in  which  it  grows.  It  is  well 
adapted  to  almost  every  soil,  though  it  seems  to  prefer 
a  moist  loam.  It  makes  a  profitable  crop  for  spending, 
in  the  form  of  hay,  though  its  yield  is  less  than  that  of 
Timothy.  It  is  well  suited  to  our  permanent  pastures, 
where  it  should  be  fed  close,  otherwise  it  becomes 
wiry  and  innutritious,  and  cattle   refuse  it.    It  stands 

12 


178 


ITALIAN     RYE     GRASS. 


Fig.  62.     Italian  Kye  grass.  Fig.  63.     Redtop. 

the   climate   of  the  country  as  well  as  any  other  grass, 
and    so    forms   a   valuable    part    of   any   mixture    for 


ENGLISH    BENT.  —  MEADOW    FESCUE.  179 


Fig.  64.     English  Bent. 


Fig.  65.    Meadow  Fescue. 


pastures  and  permanent  mowing-lands ;  but  it  is  prob- 
ably rather  overrated  by  us. 


180  TALL    OAT    GRASS. 

English  Bent  (Fig.  64),  known  also  by  a  great  variety 
of  other  names,  is  also  largely  cultivated  in  some  sec- 
tions. It  closely  resembles  redtop,  but  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  it  by  the  roughness  of  the  sheaths 
when  the  hand  is  drawn  from  above  downwards.  It 
possesses  much  the  same  qualities  as  redtop. 

Meadow  Fescue  (Fig.  G5)  is  one  of  the  most  common  of 
the  fescue  grasses,  and  is  said  to  be  the  Randall  grass  of 
Virginia.  It  is  an  excellent  pasture  grass,  forming  a 
very  considerable  portion  of  the  turf  of  old  pastures  and 
fields ;  and  is  more  extensively  propagated  and  diffused 
by  the  fact  that  it  ripens  its  seeds  before  most  other 
grasses  are  cut,  and  sheds  them  to  spring  up  and  cover 
the  ground.  Its  long  and  tender  leaves  are  much 
relished  by  cattle.  It  is  rarely  sown  in  this  country, 
notwithstanding  its  great  and  acknowledged  value  as  a 
pasture  grass.  If  sown  at  all,  it  should  be  in  mixture 
with  other  grasses,  as  orchard  grass,  rye  grass,  or  June 
grass.  It  is  of  much  greater  value  at  the  time  of 
flowering  than  when  the  seed  is  ripe. 

The  Tall  Oat  grass  (Fig.  66)  is  the  Ray  grass  of 
France.  It  furnishes  a  luxuriant  supply  of  foliage, 
is  valuable  either  for  hay  or  for  pasture,  and  has  been 
especially  recommended  for  soiling  purposes,  on  ac- 
count of  its  early  and  luxuriant  growth.  It  is  often 
found  on  the  borders  of  fields  and  hedges,  woods  and 
pastures,  and  is  sometimes  very  plenty  in  mowing-lands. 
After  being  mown  it  shoots  up  a  very  thick  aftermath, 
and  on  this  account,  partly,  is  regarded  as  nearly  equal 
for  excellence  to  the  common  foxtail.  * 

It  grows  spontaneously  on  deep,  sandy  soils,  when 
once  naturalized.  It  has  been  cultivated  to  a  consider- 
able extent  in  this  country,  and  is  esteemed  by  those 
who  know  it  mainly  for  its  early,  rapid,  and  late  growth, 


TALL     OAT. —  SWEET    VERNAL. 


181 


Fig.  68.    Tall  Oat  grass. 


Fig.  67.    Sweet-scented  Vernal. 


making  it  very  well  calculated  as  a  permanent  pasture 
grass.     It  will  succeed  on  tenacious  clover  soils. 
16 


182  HUNGARIAN    GRASS. 

The  Sweet-scented  Vernal  grass  (Fig.  67)  is  one  of 
the  earliest  in  spring  and  one  of  the  latest  in  autumn : 
and  this  habit  of  growth  is  one  of  its  chief  excellences, 
as  it  is  neither  a  nutritious  grass  nor  very  palatable  to 
stock  of  any  kind,  nor  does  it  yield  a  very  good  crop. 
It  is  very  common  all  over  New  England  and  the 
Middle  States,  coming  into  old  worn-out  fields  and  moist 
pastures  spontaneously,  and  along  every  roadside.  It 
derives  its  name  from  its  sweetness  of  smell  when  par- 
tially wilted,  or  crushed  in  the  hand,  and  it  is  this  chiefly 
that  gives  the  delicious  fragrance  to  all  new-mown  hay. 
It  is  almost  the  only  grass  that  possesses  a  strongly- 
marked  aromatic  odor,  which  is  imparted  to  other 
grasses  with  which  it  is  cured.  Its  seed  weighs  eight 
pounds  to  the  bushel.  In  mixtures  for  permanent  pas- 
tures it  may  be  of  some  value. 

Hungarian  grass,  or  Millet  (Fig.  68),  is  an  annual  forage 
plant,  introduced  into  France  in  1815,  and  more  recently 
into  this  country.  It  germinates  readily  and  withstands 
the  drought  remarkably,  remaining  green  when  other 
grasses  are  parched  and  dried  up.  It  has  numerous 
succulent  leaves,  which  furnish  an  abundance  of  sweet 
fodder,  greatly  relished  by  stock  of  all  kinds.  It 
attains  its  greatest  luxuriance  on  soils  of  medium  con- 
sistency and  richness,  but  does  very  well  on  light  and 
dry  plains. 

Red  Clover  (Fig.  69)  is  an  artificial  grass  of  the  legu- 
minous family,  and  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  culti- 
vated plants  for  feeding  to  dairy  cows.  It  flourishes 
best  on  tenacious  soils  and  stiff  loams.  Its  growth  is 
rapid,  and  a  few  months  after  sowing  are  sufficient  to 
supply  an  abundant  sweet  and  nutritious  food.  In  the 
climate  of  New  England  clover  should  be  sown  in  the 
spring  of  the  year,  while  most  of  the  natural  grasses  do 
far  better  sown   in  the  fall.     It  is  often  sown  with  per- 


CLOVER 


HUNGARIAN    GRASS. 


183 


Fig.  69.    Red  Clover.  Fig  68.    Hungarian  grass. 

feet  success  on  the  late  snows  of  March  or  April,  and 
soon  finds  its  way  down  into  the  soil  and  takes  a  vigor- 


184  MIXTURE    OF    GRASS-SEEDS. 

ous  root.  It  is  valuable  not  only  as  a  forage  plant,  but 
as  shading  the  ground,  and  thereby  increasing  its 
fertility. 

The  introduction  of  clover  among  the  cultivated 
plants  of  the  farm'  has  done  more,  perhaps,  for  modern 
agriculture  than  that  of  any  other  single  plant.  It  has 
now  come  to  be  considered  indispensable  in  all  good 
dairy  districts. 


70.     White  Clover. 


White  Clover  (Fig.  70),  often  called  Honeysuckle,  is 
also  widely  diffused  over  this  country,  to  which  it  is 
undoubtedly  indigenous.  As  a  mixture  in  all  pasture 
grasses  it  holds  a  very  high  rank,  as  it  is  exceedingly 
sweet  and  nutritious,  and  relished  by  stock  of  all  kinds. 
It  grows  most  luxuriantly  in  moist  grounds  and  moist 
seasons,  but  easily  accommodates  itself  to  a  great 
variety  of  circumstances. 

With  respect  to  the  mixtures  of  grass-seeds  most 
profitable  for  the  dairy  farmer,  no  universal  rule  can 
be  given,  as  they  depend  very  much  upon  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  the  locality.  The  most  important  point 
to  be  observed,  and  one  in  which  we,  as  a  body,  are 
perhaps  most  deficient,  is  to  use  a  large  number  of 
species,  with  smaller  quantities  of  each  than  those  most 
commonly  used.     This  is  nature's  rule ;  for,  in  examin- 


nature's   rule.  185 

ing  the  turf  of  a  rich  old  pasture,  we  shall  find  a  large 
number  of  different  species  growing  together,  while,  if 
we  examine  the  turf  of  a  field  sown  with  only  one  or 
two  different  species,  we  find  a  far  less  number  of  plants 
to  the  square  foot,  even  after  the  sod  is  fairly  set.  No 
improvement  in  grass  culture  is  more  important,  it 
seems  to  me.  I  have  suggested,  in  another  place,  a 
large  number  of  mixtures  adapted  to  the  different 
varieties  of  soil  and  circumstance,  together  with  the 
reasons  for  the  mixture  in  many  instances.  (See  A 
Practical  Treatise  on  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants,  com- 
prising their  Natural  History,  Comparative  Nutritive 
Value,  Methods  of  Cultivating,  Cutting,  and  Curing,  and 
the  Management  of  Grass  Lands,  &c.  400  pp.  8vo.,  with 
illustrations.)  As  an  instance  of  what  I  should  consider 
an  improvement  on  our  ordinary  mixtures  for  permanent 
pastures,  I  would  suggest  the  following  as  likely  to 
give  satisfactory  results,  dependent,  of  course,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  on  the  nature  and  preparation  of  the 
soil: 


Meadow  Foxtail,  flowering  in  May  and  June, 


2  pounds 


Orchard  Grass,            "         "     "       "       "        ....  6  " 

Sweet-scented  Vernal,  "         '•' April  and  May,  .     ...  1 

Meadow  Fescue,           "         "  May  and  June,    ....  2  " 

Redtop,                         "         "  June  and  July,   ....  2  " 

June  Grass,                  "         "  May  and  June,    ....  4  " 

Italian  Rye  Grass,       "         "  June,          4  " 

Perennial  Rye  Grass, "         "  June, 6  " 

Timothy,                       "         "  June  and  July,         ...  3  ' 

Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass,  flowering  in  June  and  July,  2 

Perennial  Clover,  flowering  in  June, 3 

White  Clover,              "          "  May  to  September,       .     .  5-40 kt 

For  mowing-lands  the  mixture  would,  of  course,  be 

somewhat  changed.     The   meadow    foxtail  and  sweet- 

scented  vernal  would  be  left  out  entirely,  and  some  six 

or  eight  pounds  added  to  the  Timothy  and  red  clover. 

16* 


186  WHEN    TO     CUT    GRASS     FOR    COWS. 

The  proper  time  to  lay  down  lands  to  grass  in  the  lati- 
tude of  New  England  is  August  or  September,  and  no 
grain  crop  should  be  sown  with  the  seed. 

Stiff  or  clayey  pastures  should  never  be  over- 
stocked, but  when  fed  pretty  close  the  grasses  are 
far  sweeter  and  more  nutritious  than  when  they  are 
allowed  to  grow  up  rank  and  coarse ;  and  if,  by  a  want 
of  sufficient  feeding,  they  get  the  start  of  the  stock,  and 
grow  into  rank  tufts,  they  should  be  cut  and  removed, 
when  a  fresh  grass  will  start  up,  similar  to  the  after- 
math of  mowing-lands,  which  will  be  greedily  eaten. 
Grasses  for  curing  into  hay  should  be  cut  either  at  the 
time  of  flowering  or  just  before,  especially  if  designed 
for  milch  cows.  They  are  then  more  succulent  and 
juicy,  and,  if  properly  cured,  form  the  sweetest  food. 

Grass  cut  in  the  blossom  will  make  more  milk  than  if 
allowed  to  stand  later.  Cut  a  little  before  the  blossom- 
ing, it  will  make  more  than  when  in  the  blossom;  and 
the  cows  prefer  it,  which  is  by  no  means  an  unimportant 
consideration,  since  their  tastes  should  always  be  con- 
sulted. Grass  cut  somewhat  green,  and  properly  cured, 
is  next  to  fresh,  green  grass  in  palatable  and  nutritive 
qualities.  And  so  a  sensible  practical  farmer  writes 
me :  "  The  time  of  cutting  grass  depends  very  much 
upon  the  use  you  wish  to  make  of  it.  If  for  working 
oxen  and  horses,  I  would  let  it  stand  till  a  little  out  of 
the  blossom  ;  but  if  to  feed  out  to  new  milch  cows  in" 
the  winter,  I  would  prefer  to  cut  it  very  green.  It  is 
then  worth  for  the  making  of  milk  in  the  winter  almost 
double  that  cut  later."  Every  farmer  knows  the  milk- 
producing  properties  of  rowen,  which  is  generally  cut 
before  it  blossoms. 

No  operation  on  the  farm  is  of  greater  importance 
to  the  dairyman  than  the  cutting  of  his  grass  and 
r.he  manner   of  curing   hay,   and   in   this    respect  the 


HAY    OVER-CURED.  —  CURING    CLOVER.        187 

practice  over  the  country  generally  is  susceptible  of 
very  great  improvement.  The  chief  object  is  to  pre- 
serve the  sweetness  and  succulence  of  grass  in  its 
natural  state,  so  far  as  it  is  possible  ;  and  this  object 
cannot  be  gained  by  exposing  it  too  long  to  the  scorch- 
ing suns  and  the  drenching  rains  to  which  we  are 
liable  in  this  climate.  We  generally  try  to  make  our 
hay  too  much. 

As  to  the  best  modes  of  curing  clover,  my  own 
experience  and  observation  accord  with  that  of  several 
practical  farmers,  who  write  me  as  follows :  "  My 
method  of  curing  clover  is  this :  What  is  mown  in  the 
morning  I  leave  in  the  swath,  to  be  turned  over  early 
in  the  afternoon.  At  about  four  o'clock,  or  while  it  is 
still  warm,  I  put  it  into  small  cocks  with  a  fork,  and,  if 
the  weather  is  favorable,  it  may  be  housed  on  the 
fourth  or  fifth  day,  the  cocks  being  turned  over  on  the 
morning  of  the  day  it  is  to  be  carted.  By  so  doing  all 
the  heads  and  leaves  are  saved,  and  these  are  worth 
more  than  the  stems.  This  has  been  my  method  for 
the  last  ten  years.  For  new  milch  cows  in  the  winter 
I  think  there  is  nothing  better.  It  will  make  them  give 
as  great  a  flow  of  milk  as  any  hay,  unless  it  be  good 
rowen."  Another  says  :  "  When  the  weather  bids  fair 
to  be  good,  I  mow  it  after  the  dew  is  off,  and  cock  it 
up  after  being  wilted,  using  the  fork  instead  of  rolling 
with  the  rake,  and  let  it  remain  several  days,  when  it  is 
fit  to  put  into  the  barn."  And  another:  "I  mow  my 
clover  in  the  forenoon,  and  towards  night  of  the  same 
day  I  take  forks  and  pitch  it  into  cocks  and  let  it  stand 
till  it  cures.  The  day  I  cart  it,  I  turn  the  cocks  over, 
so  as  to  air  the  lower  part.  I  then  put  it  into  the  mow 
with  all  the  leaves  and  heads  on,  and  it  is  as  nice  and 
green  as  green  tea.  I  think  it  worth  for  milch  cows 
and  sheep  as  much  per  ton  as  English  hay."     And  stilJ 


188  INDIAN-CORN     FODDER. 

another :  "  I  have  found  no  better  hay  for  farm  stock 
than  good  clover,  cut  in  season.  For  milch  cows  it  is 
much  better  than  Timothy.  The  rowen  crop  is  bettei 
than  any  other  for  calves." 

Indian  Corn  makes  an  exceedingly  valuable  fodder 
both  as  a  means  of  carrying  a  herd  of  milch  cows 
through  our  severe  droughts  of  summer,  and  as  an 
article  for  soiling  cows  kept  in  the  stall.  No  dairy 
farmer  will  neglect  to  sow  an  extent  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  cows  he  keeps.  The  most  common 
practice  is  to  sow  in  drills  from  two  and  a  half  to  three 
feet  apart,  on  land  well  tilled  and  thoroughly  manured, 
making  the  drills  from  six  to  ten  inches  wide  with  the 
plough,  manuring  in  the  furrow,  dropping  the  corn  about 
two  inches  apart,  and  covering  with  the  hoe.  In  this 
mode  of  culture  the  cultivator  may  be  used  between 
the  rows  when  the  corn  is  from  six  to  twelve  inches 
high,  and  unless  the  ground  is  very  weedy  no  other 
after  culture  is  generally  needed.  The  first  sowing 
usually  takes  place  about  the  20th  of  May,  and  this  is 
succeeded  by  other  sowings  at  intervals  of  a  week  or 
ten  days,  till  July,  in  order  to  have  a  succession  of 
green  fodder.  But,  if  it  is  designed  to  cut  it  up  to  cure 
for  winter  use,  an  early  sowing  is  generally  preferred, 
in  order  to  be  able  to  cure  it  in  warm  weather,  in 
August  or  early  in  September.  Sown  in  this  way, 
about  three  or  four  bushels  of  corn  are  required  for  an 
acre,  since,  if  sown  thickly,  the  fodder  is  better,  the 
stalks  smaller,  and  the  waste  less. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  curing  corn  cultivated  for  this 
purpose,  and  after  the  methods  spoken  of,  arises  mainly 
from  the  fact  that  it  comes  at  a  season  when  the 
weather  is  often  colder,  the  days  shorter,  and  the  dews 
heavier,  than  when  the  curing  of  hay  takes  place.  Nor 
is  the  curing  of  corn  cut  up  green  so  easy  and  simple 


STOOKING.  —  MILLET    CULTURE.  189 

as  that  of  drying  the  stalks  of  Indian  corn  cut  above 
the  ear,  as  in  our  common  practice  of  topping.  The 
plant  is  then  riper,  less  juicy,  and  cures  more  readily. 

The  method  sometimes  adopted  is  to  cut  and  tie 
into  small  bundles,  after  it  is  somewhat  wilted,  and 
stook  upon  the  ground,  where  it  is  allowed  to  stand, 
subject  to  all  the  changes  of  the  weather,  with  only  the 
protection  of  the  stook  itself  The  stooks  consist  of 
bunches  of  stalks  first  bound  in  small  bundles,  and  are 
made  sufficiently  large  to  prevent  the  wind  from  blow- 
ing them  over.  The  arms  are  thrown  around  the  tops 
to  bring  them  together  as  closely  as  possible,  when  the 
tops  are  broken  over  or  twisted  together,  or  otherwise 
fastened,  in  order  to  make  the  stook  "  shed  the  rain  "  as 
well  as  possible.  In  this  condition  they  stand  out  till 
sufficiently  dried  to  put  into  the  barn.  Corn  fodder  is 
very  excellent  for  young  dairy  stock. 

Common  Millet  (Panicum  miliaceum)  is  another 
very  valuable  crop  for  fodder  in  soiling,  or  to  cure  for 
winter  use,  but  especially  to  feed  out  during  our  usual 
periods  of  drought.  Many  varieties  of  millet  are  culti- 
vated in  this  country,  the  ground  being  prepared  and 
treated  as  for  oats.  If  designed  to  cut  for  green 
fodder,  half  a  bushel  of  seed  to  the  acre  should  be  used, 
if  to  ripen  seed,  twelve  quarts,  sown  broad-cast,  about 
the  last  of  May  or  early  in  June.  A  moist  loam  or 
muck  is  the  best  adapted  to  millet ;  but  I  have  seen 
very  great  crops  grown  on  dry  upland.  It  is  very 
palatable  and  nutritious  for  milch  cows,  both  green  and 
when  properly  cured.  The  curing  should  be  very 
much  like  clover,  care  being  taken  not  to  over-dry  it. 
For  fodder,  either  green  or  cured,  it  is  cut  before 
ripening.  In  this  state  all  cattle  eat  it  as  readily  as 
green  corn,  and  a  less  extent  will  feed  them.  Millet  is 
worthy  of  a  widely-extended  cultivation,  particularly  on 


190  RYE.  —  OATS. —  ROOT     CROPS. 

dairy  farms.  Indian  millet  [Sorghum  vulgar e)  is  another 
cultivated  variety. 

Rye,  as  a  fodder  plant,  is  chiefly  valuable  for  its 
early  growth  in  spring.  It  is  usually  sown  in  Septem- 
ber or  October,  from  the  middle  to  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember being,  perhaps,  the  most  desirable  time,  on 
land  previously  cultivated  and  in  good  condition.  If 
designed  to  ripen  only,  a  bushel  of  seed  is  required  to 
the  acre,  evenly  sown ;  but,  if  intended  for  early  fodder 
in  spring,  two  or  two  and  a  half  bushels  per  acre  of 
seed  should  be  used.  On  warm  land  the  rye  can  be  cut 
green  the  last  of  April  or  first  of  May ;  and  care  should 
be  taken  to  cut  early,  as,  if  allowed  to  advance  too 
far  towards  maturity,  the  stalk  becomes  hard  and  un- 
palatable to  cows. 

Oats  are  also  sometimes  used  for  soiling,  or  for  feed- 
ing green,  to  eke  out  a  scanty  supply  of  pasture  feed ; 
and  for  this  purpose  they  are  valuable.  They  should 
be  sown  on  well-tilled  and  well-manured  land,  about 
four  bushels  to  the  acre,  towards  the  last  of  April  or 
first  of  May.  If  the  whole  crop  is  to  be  used  as  green 
fodder,  five  bushels  of  seed  will  not  be  too  much  on 
strong,  good  soil.  They  will  be  sufficiently  grown  to 
cut  by  the  first  of  July,  or  in  some  sections  earlier, 
depending  on  location. 

The  Chinese  Sugar-Cane  also  may  deserve  atten- 
tion as  a  lodder  plant.  Experiments  hitherto  made 
seem  to  shov  that  when  properly  cultivated,  and  cut  at 
the  right  time,  it  is  a  palatable  and  nutritious  plant, 
while  many  of  the  failures  have  been  the  result  of  too 
early  cutting.  For  a  fodder  crop  the  drill  culture  is 
preferable,  both  on  account  of  the  larger  yield  obtained 
and  to  prevent  it  from  becoming  too  hard  and  stalky. 

The  Potato  (Solarium  tuberosum)  is  the  first  of 
the  root  crops  to  be  mentioned.    This  produces  a  large 


CULTURE  OF  THE  POTATO.         191 

quantity  of  milk,  though  the  quality  is  inferior.  The 
market  value  of  this  root  is,  at  the  present  time,  too 
great  to  allow  of  feeding  extensively  with  it,  even  in 
milk-dairies,  where  it  is  most  valuable  as  food  for  cows; 
still,  there  are  locations  where  it  may  be  judicious  to 
cultivate  this  root  for  dairy  feed,  and  in  all  circum- 
stances there  is  a  certain  portion  of  the  crop  of  un- 
marketable size,  which  will  be  of  value  fed  to  milch 
cows  or  swine.  It  should  be  planted  in  April  or  May, 
but  in  many  sections  in  June,  on  good  mellow  soil,  first 
thoroughly  ploughed  and  harrowed,  then  furrowed  three 
feet  apart,  and  manured  in  the  furrows  with  a  mixture 
of  ashes,  plaster  of  Paris,  and  salt.  The  seed  may  be 
dropped  in  the  furrows,  one  foot  apart,  after  the  drill 
system,  or  in  hills,  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  apart, 
to  be  covered  with  the  plough  by  simply  turning 
the  furrows  back,  after  which  the  whole  should  be 
rolled  with  the  field  roller,  where  it  can  be  done. 

If  the  land  is  not  already  in  good  heart  from 
continued  cultivation,  a  few  loads  of  barn-yard  manure 
may  be  spread,  and  ploughed  under  by  the  first 
ploughing.  Used  in  this  way,  it  is  far  less  liable  to 
cause  the  rot  than  when  put  in  the  hill.  If  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  wood-ashes  is  not  at  hand,  sifted  coal- 
ashes  will  answer  the  purpose,  and  are  said  to  be 
valuable  as  a  preventive  of  the  rot.  In  this  way  one 
man,  two  boys,  and  a  horse,  can  plant  from  three  to 
four  acres  a  day  on  mellow  land.  I  have  planted 
two  acres  a  day  on  the  sod,  the  manure  being  first 
spread  on  the  grass,  a  furrow  made  by  a  yoke  of  oxen 
and  one  man,  another  following  after  and  dropping,  a 
foot  apart,  along  the  outer  edge  of  the  furrow  on  the 
grass.  By  quick  work,  one  hand  can  nearly  keep  up 
with  the  plough  in  dropping.  When  arrived  at  the 
end  of  the   piece,  a  back  furrow  is  turned  up  to  the 


192  CULTURE     OF     THE     CARROT. 

potatoes,  and  a  good  ploughman  will  cover  nearly  all 
without  difficulty.  On  the  return-furrow  the  man  or 
boy  who  dropped  follows  after;  covering  up  any  that 
may  be  left  or  displaced,  and  smoothing  off  the  top 
of  the  back-furrows  where  necessary.  Potatoes  thus 
planted  came  out  as  fine  as  I  ever  saw  any. 

The  cost  of  cultivation  in  this  mode,  it  must  be 
evident  is  but  trifling  compared  with  the  slower 
method  of  hand-planting.  The  plan  will  require  a  skil- 
ful ploughman,  a  quick,  active  lad,  and  a  good  yoke 
of  oxen,  and  the  extent  of  the  work  will  depend 
somewhat  on  the  state  of  the  turf.  The  nutritive 
equivalent  in  potatoes  for  one  hundred  pounds  of  good 
hay  is  3.19  pounds ;  that  is,  it  will  take  3.19  pounds  of 
potatoes  to  afford  the  same  amount  of  nourishment 
as  one  pound  of  hay.  The  great  value  of  roots  is  as  a 
change  or  condiment,  calculated  to  keep  the  animal  in 
a  healthy  condition. 

The  Carrot  (Baucus  carota)  is  somewhat  exten- 
sively fed,  and  is  a  valuable  root  for  milch  cows.  This, 
like  the  potato,  has  been  cultivated  and  improved  from 
a  wild  plant.  Carrots  require  a  deep,  warm,  mellow 
soil,  thoroughly  cultivated,  but  clean  and  free  from 
weed-seed.  The  difference  between  a  very  good  profit 
and  a  loss  on  the  crop  depends  much  on  the  use  of 
land  and  manures  perfectly  free  from  foul  seeds  of 
any  kind.  Ashes,  guano,  sea-weed,  ground  bone,  and 
other  similar  substances,  or  thoroughly-rotted  and 
formented  compost,  will  answer  the  purpose. 

After  ploughing  deep,  and  harrowing  carefully,  the 
seed  should  be  sown  with  a  seed-sower,  in  drills  about 
eighteen  inches  apart,  at  the  rate  of  four  pounds  to 
the  acre,  about  the  middle  or  twentieth  of  April.  The 
difference  between  sowing  by  the  first  of  May  and  the 
tenth  of  June  in  New  England  is  said  to  be  nearly  one 


ECONOMIZE     LABOR. HARVESTING.  193 

third  in  the  crop  on  an  average  of  years.  In  weeding,  a 
little  wheel-hoe  is  invaluable,  as  with  it  a  large  part  of 
the  labor  of  cultivation  is  saved.  A  skilful  hand  can 
run  this  hoe  within  half  an  inch  of  the  young  plants 
without  injury,  and  go  over  a  large  space  in  the  course 
of  a  day,  if  the  land  was  properly  prepared  in  the  first 
place. 

The  American  farmer  should  always  plan  to  economize 
labor.  That  is  the  great  item  of  expense  on  the  farm. 
I  do  not  mean  that  he  should  try  to  shirk  or  avoid  work, 
but  that  he  should  make  the  least  amount  of  work 
accomplish  the  largest  and  most  profitable  results. 
Labor-saving  machinery  on  the  farm  is  applied  not  to 
reduce  the  number  of  hours'  labor,  or  to  make  the 
owner  a  man  of  leisure,  —  who  is,  generally,  the  unhap- 
piest  man  in  the  world,  —  but  to  enable  him  to  accom- 
plish the  greatest  results  in  the  same  time  that  he 
would  be  compelled  to  labor  to  obtain  smaller  ones. 

Carrots  will  continue  to  grow  and  increase  in  size 
late  into  the  fall.  When  ready  to  dig,  plough  around 
as  near  to  the  outside  rows  as  possible,  turning  the  fur- 
row away  from  the  row.  Then  take  out  the  carrots, 
pulling  off  the  tops,  and  throw  the  carrots  and  tops 
into  separate  heaps  on  the  ploughed  furrows.  In  this 
way  a  man  and  two  boys  can  harvest  and  put  into  the 
cellar  over  a  hundred  bushels  a  day. 

The  Turnip  (Brassica  rapa)  and  the  Swedish  tur- 
nip or  ruta  baga  [Brassica  campesti'is)  are  also  largely 
cultivated  as  a  field  crop  to  feed  to  stock ;  and  for  this 
purpose  numberless  varieties  are  used,  furnishing  a 
great  amount  of  succulent  and  nutritious  food,  late  into 
winter,  and,  if  well  kept,  late  into  spring.  The  chief 
objection  to  the  turnip  is  that  it  taints  the  milk.  This 
may  be  remedied,  to  a  considerable  extent,  if  not  wholly, 
by  the  use  of  salt,  or  salt  hay,  and  by  feeding  at  the 
17  13 


194  CULTURE     OF    TURNIPS. 

time  of  milking,  or  immediately  after,  or  by  steaming 
before  feeding,  or  putting  a  small  quantity  of  the  solu- 
tion of  nitre  into  the  pail,  and  milking  upon  it. 

Turnips  may  be  sown  any  time  in  June,  in  rich  land, 
well  mellowed  by  cultivation.  Very  large  crops  are  often 
obtained  sown  as  late  as  the  middle  of  July,  or  first  of 
August,  on  an  inverted  sod.  The  Michigan  or  double- 
mould-board  plough  leaves  the  land  light,  and  in  admira- 
ble condition  to  harrow,  and  drill  in  turnips.  A  success- 
ful root-grower  last  year  cut  two  tons  of  hay  to  the 
acre,  on  the  23d  of  June,  and  after  it  was  removed  from 
the  land  spread  eight  cords  of  rotten  kelp  to  the  acre, 
and  ploughed  in  ;  after  which  about  three  cords  of  fine 
old  compost  manure  were  used  to  the  acre,  which  was 
sown  with  ruta  baga  seed,  in  drills,  three  feet  apart, 
plants  thinned  to  eight  or  ten  inches  in  the  drill.  No 
after  cultivation  was  required.  On  the  15th  of  Novem- 
ber he  harvested  three  hundred  and  seventy  bushels  of 
splendid  roots  to  the  acre,  carefully  measured  off. 

The  nutritive  equivalent  of  Swedish  turnips  as  com- 
pared with  good  meadow  hay  is  676,  taking  hay  as  a 
standard  at  100  ;  that  is,  it  would  require  6.76  lbs.  of 
turnips  to  furnish  the  same  nutriment  as  one  pound  of 
good  hay  ;  but,  fed  in  connection  with  other  food,  as 
hay,  for  instance,  perhaps  five  pounds  of  turnips  would 
be  about  equal  to  one  pound  of  hay. 

The  English  or  round  turnip  is  usually  sown  broad- 
cast after  some  other  crop,  and  large  and  valuable  re- 
turns are  often  obtained.  The  Swede  is  sown  in  drills. 
Both  these  varieties  are  used  for  the  production  of  milk. 

The  chief  objection  to  the  turnip  crop  is  that  it 
leaves  many  kinds  of  soil  unfit  for  a  succession  of  some 
other  crops,  like  Indian  corn,  for  instance.  In  some 
sections  no  amount  of  manuring  appears  to  make  corn 
do  well  after  turnips  or  ruta  ba°:as. 


MANGOLDS. — PARSNIPS.  195 

The  Mangold  Wurzel,  a  variety  of  the  Beta  vul- 
garis, is  often  cultivated  with  great  success  in  this 
country,  and  fed  to  cows  with  advantage,  furnishing  a 
succulent  and  nutritive  food  in  winter  and  spring.  The 
crop  is  somewhat  uncertain.  When  it  does  well  an 
enormous  yield  is  often  obtained  ;  but  it  often  proves  a 
failure,  and  is  not,  on  the  whole,  quite  as  reliable  as  the 
ruta  baga,  though  a  more  valuable  crop  when  the  yield 
is  good.  It  is  cultivated  like  the  common  beet,  in  moist, 
rich  soils,  three  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre.  The  leaves 
may  be  stripped  oif,  towards  fall,  and  fed  out,  without 
injury  to  the  growth  of  the  root.  Both  mangolds  and 
turnips  should  be  cut  with  a  root-cutter,  before  being 
fed  out. 

The  Parsnip  (Pastinaca  sativa)  is  a  very  sweet  and 
nutritive  article  of  fodder,  and  adds  richness  and  flavor 
to  the  milk.  It  is  worthy  of  extended  culture  in  all 
parts  of  this  country  where  dairy  husbandry  is  pur- 
sued. It  is  a  biennial,  easily  raised  on  deep,  rich,  well- 
cultivated  and  well-manured  soils,  often  yielding  enor- 
mous crops,  and  possessing  the  advantage  of  withstand- 
ing the  severest  winters.  As  an  article  of  spring  feed- 
ing, therefore,  it  is  exceedingly  valuable.  Sown  in 
April  or  May,  it  attains  a  large  growth  before  winter. 
Then,  if  desirable,  a  part  of  the  crop  may  be  harvested 
for  winter  use,  and  the  remainder  left  in  the  ground  till 
the  frost  is  out,  in  March  or  April,  when  they  can  be 
dug  as  wanted,  and  are  exceedingly  relished  by  milch 
cows,  and  stock  of  all  kinds.  They  make  an  admirable 
feed  at  the  time  of  milking,  and  produce  the  richest 
cream,  and  the  yellowest  and  finest-flavored  butter,  of 
any  root  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  The  good  dairy 
farmers  on  the  island  of  Jersey  often  feed  to  their 
cows  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  pounds  of  parsnips  a 
da}r,  iD  addition  to  hay  or  grass. 


196  THE     PARSNIP.  —  KOHL    RABI. 

Both  practical  experiment  and  scientific  analysis 
prove  this  root  to  be  eminently  adapted  to  dairy  stock, 
where  the  richness  of  milk  or  fine-flavored  butter  is  any 
object.  For  mere  milk-dairies,  it  is  not  quite  so  valua- 
ble, probably,  as  the  Swedish  turnip.  The  culture  is 
similar  to  that  of  carrots,  a  rich,  mellow,  and  deep 
loam  b<nug  best;  while  it  has  a  great  advantage  over  the 
carrot  in  being  more  hardy,  and  rather  less  liable  to 
injury  from  insects,  and  more  nutritive.  For  feeding 
and  fattening  stock  it  is  eminently  adapted. 

To  be  sure  of  a  crop,  fresh  seed  must  be  had,  as  it 
cannot  be  depended  on  more  than  one  year.  For  this 
reason,  the  largest  and  straightest  roots  should  be 
allowed  to  stand  for  seed,  which,  as  soon  as  nearly  ripe, 
should  be  taken  off  and  spread  out  to  dry,  and  carefully 
kept  for  use.  For  field  culture  the  hollow-crowned 
parsnip  is  the  best  and  most  profitable  ;  but  on  thin, 
shallow  soils  the  turnip-rooted  variety  should  be  used. 
Parsnips  may  be  harvested  like  carrots,  by  ploughing 
along  the  rows.  Let  butter  or  cheese  dairymen  give 
this  crop  a  fair  and  full  trial,  and  watch  its  effect  on  the 
quality  of  the  milk  and  butter. 

The  Kohl  Rabi  (Brassica  oleracea,  var.  caulorapa)  is 
also  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent  in  this  country, 
to  feed  to  stock.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a  hybrid  between 
the  cabbage  and  the  turnip,  and  is  often  called  the  cab- 
bage-turnip, having  the  root  of  the  former,  with  a  tur- 
nip-like or  bulbous  stem.  The  special  reason  for  its 
more  extensive  cultivation  among  us  is  its  wonderful 
indifference  to  droughts,  in  which  it  seems  to  flourish 
best,  and  to  bring  forth  the  most  luxuriant  crops.  It 
also  withstands  the  frosts  remarkably,  being  a  hardy 
plant.  It  yields  a  somewhat  richer  quality  of  milk  than 
the  ordinary  turnip,  and  the  crop  is  generally  admitted 
to  be  as  abundant  and  profitable.     I  have  seen  very 


LINSEED    AND     COTTON-SEED     MEAL.  197 

large  crops  of  it  produced  by  the  ordinary  turnip  or 
cabbage  cultivation.  As  in  cabbage  culture,  it  is  best 
to  sow  the  seed  in  March  or  April,  in  a  warm  and  well- 
enriched  seed-bed ;  from  which  it  is  transplanted  in 
May,  and  set  out  after  the  manner  of  cabbages  in  gar- 
den culture.  It  bears  transplanting  better  than  most 
other  roots.  Insects  injure  it  less  than  the  turnip,  dry 
weather  favors  it,  and  it  keeps  well  through  the  winter. 
For  these  reasons,  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  valuable 
addition  to  our  list  of  forage  plants  adapted  to  dairy 
farming.  It  grows  well  on  stronger  soils  than  the 
turnip. 

Linseed  Meal  is  the  ground  cake  of  flax-seed,  after 
the  oil  is  pressed  out.  It  is  very  rich  in  fat-forming 
principles,  and  given  to  milch  cows  it  increases  the 
quality  of  butter,  and  keeps  them  in  condition.  Four 
or  five  pounds  a  day  are  sufficient  for  cows  in  milk,  and 
this  amount  will  effect  a  great  saving  in  the  cost  of 
other  food,  and  at  the  same  time  make  a  very  rich 
milk.  It  is  extensively  manufactured  in  this  country, 
and  largely  exported,  but  is  worthy  of  more  general  use 
here.  It  must  not  be  fed  in  too  large  quantities  to 
milch  cows,  for  it  would  be  liable  to  give  too  great  a 
tendency  to  fat,  and  thus  affect  the  quantity  of  milk. 

Rape-Cake  possesses  much  the  same  qualities.  It  is 
the  residuum  after  pressing  the  oil  from  rape-seed. 

Cotton-seed  Meal  is  an  article  of  comparatively 
recent  introduction.  It  is  obtained  by  pressing  the 
seed  of  the  cotton-plant,  which  extracts  the  oil,  when 
the  cake  is  crushed  or  ground  into  meal,  which  has  been 
found  to  be  a  very  valuable  article  for  feeding  stock. 
An  analysis  has  been  given  on  a  preceding  page,  which 
shows  it  to  be  equal  or  superior  to  linseed  meal.  Prac- 
tical experiments  are  needed  to  establish  it.  It  is  pre- 
17* 


198  MANURES     ON    THE    FARM. 

pared  chiefly  in  Providence,  R.  L,  and  is  for  sale  in  the 
market  at  a  very  reasonable  price. 

The  Manures  used  in  this  country  in  the  culture 
of  the  plants  mentioned  above  are  mostly  such  as  are 
made  on  the  farm,  consisting  chiefly  of  barn-yard  com- 
posts of  various  kinds,  with  often  a  large  admixture  of 
peat-mud.  There  are  few  farms  that  do  not  contain 
substances  which,  if  properly  husbanded,  would  add 
very  greatly  to  the  amount  of  manure  ordinarily  made. 
The  best  of  the  concentrated  manures,  which  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  use,  for  want  of  time  and  labor  to 
prepare  enough  on  the  farm,  is,  unquestionably,  Peru- 
vian guano.  The  results  of  this,  when  properly  ap- 
plied, are  well  known  and  reliable,  which  can  hardly  be 
said  of  any  other  artificial  manure  offered  for  the  farm- 
er's notice.  The  chief  objection  to  depending  on  man- 
ures made  off  the  farm  is,  in  the  first  place,  their  great 
expense  ;  and  in  the  second,  which  is  equally  important, 
the  fact  that,  though  they  may  be  made  valuable,  and 
produce  at  one  time  the  best  results,  a  want  of  care  in 
the  manufacture,  or  designed  fraud,  may  make  them 
almost  worthless,  with  the  impossibility  of  detecting 
the  imposition,  without  a  chemical  analysis,  till  it  be- 
comes too  late,  and  the  crop  is  lost. 

It  is,  therefore,  safest  to  rely  mainly  upon  the  home 
manufacture  of  manure.  The  extra  expense  of  soiling 
cattle,  saving  and  applying  the  liquid  manure,  and  thus 
bringing  the  land  to  a  higher  state  of  cultivation, 
when  it  will  be  capable  of  keeping  more  stock,  and  of 
furnishing  more  manure,  would  offer  a  surer  road  to  suc- 
cess than  a  constant  outlay  for  concentrated  fertilizers. 

The  various  articles  used  for  top-dressing  grass  lands, 
and  the  management  of  grass  and  pasture  lands,  have  been 
treated  of  in  detail  in  the  work  already  alluded  to,  on 
the  Culture  of  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

MILK. 

Milk,  as  the  first  and  natural  food  of  man,  has  been 
used  from  the  remotest  antiquity  of  the  human  race. 
It  is  produced  by  the  females  of  that  class  of  ani- 
mals known  as  the  mammalia,  and  was  designed  by 
nature  as  the  nourishment  of  their  young ;  but  the 
richest  and  most  abundant  secretions  in  common  use 
are  those  of  the  cow,  the  camel,  the  mare,  and  the  goat. 
The  use  of  camel's  milk  is  confined  chiefly  to  Africa  and 
to  China,  that  of  mares  to  Tartary  and  Siberia,  and  that 
of  goats  to  Italy  and  Spain.  The  milk  of  the  cow  is 
universally  esteemed. 

Milk  is  an  opaque  fluid,  generally  white  in  color, 
having  a  sweet  and  agreeable  taste,  and  is  composed  of 
a  fatty  substance,  which  forms  butter,  a  caseous  sub- 
stance, which  forms  cheese,  and  a  watery  residuum, 
known  as  serum,  or  whey,  in  cheese-making.  The 
fatty  or  butyraceous  matter  in  pure  milk  varies  usually 
from  two  and  a  half  to  six  and  a  half  per  cent.  ;  the 
caseous  or  cheesy  matter,  from  three  to  ten  per  cent. ;; 
and  the  serous  matter,  or  whey,  from  eighty  to  ninety 
per  cent. 

To  the  naked  eye  milk  appears  to  be  of  the  same 
character  and  consistence  throughout;  but  under  the 
microscope  a  myriad  of  little  globules  of  varied  forms, 
but  mostly  round   or  ovoid,  and  of  very  unequal  sizes,. 


200  COMPOSITION     OF   MILK. 

appear  to  float  in  the  watery  matter.  On  more  minute 
examination,  these  bntter-globules  are  seen  to  be 
enclosed  in  a  thin  film  of  caseous  matter.  They  are  so 
minute  that  they  filter  through  the  finest  paper.  Milk 
readily  assimilates  with  water  and  other  sweet  and 
unfermented  liquids,  though  it  weighs  four  per  cent, 
uiore  than  water.     Cold  condenses,  heat  liquefies  it. 

The  elements  of  which  it  is  composed,  not  being 
similar  in  character  or  specific  gravity,  undergo  rapid 
changes  when  at  rest.  The  oily  particles,  being  lighter 
than  the  rest,  soon  begin  to  separate  from  them,  and 
rise  to  the  surface  in  the  form  of  a  yellowish  semi-liquid 
cream,  while  the  greater  specific  gravity  of  the  serous 
matter,  or  whey,  carries  it  to  the  bottom. 

A  high  temperature  very  soon  develops  acidity,  and 
hastens  the  separation  of  the  cheesy  matter,  or  curd, 
from  the  whey.  And  so  the  three  principal  elements 
are  easily  distinguished. 

But  the  oily  or  butyraceous  matter,  in  rising  to  the 
surface,  brings  up  along  with  it  many  cheesy  particles, 
which  mechanically  adhere  to  it,  and  give  it  more  or 
less  of  a  white  instead  of  a  yellow  color;  and  many 
watery  or  serous  particles,  which  make  it  thinner,  or 
more  liquid,  than  it  otherwise  would  be.  If  it  rose  up 
free  from  the  adhesion  of  the  other  elements,  it  would 
appear  in  the  form  of  pure  butter,  and  would  not  need 
to  undergo  the  process  of  churning  to  separate  it  from 
other  substances.  The  time  may  come  when  some 
means  will  be  devised,  either  mechanical  or  chemical, 
to  separate  the  butter  particles  from  the  rest  instan- 
taneously and  completely,  and  thus  avoid  the  often  long 
and  tedious  process  of  churning. 

The  coagulation,  or  collecting  together  of  the  cheesy 
particles,  by  which  the  curd  becomes  separated  from 
the  whey   sometimes  takes  place  so  rapidly,  from  the 


CAUGHT  IN  THE  CURD.  —  FERMENTATION.  201 

effect  of  great  heat,  or  sudden  changes  in  the  atmos- 
phere, that  there  is  not  time  for  the  butter  particles  to 
rise  to  the  surface,  and  they  remain  mixed  up  with  the 
curd. 

Nor  does  the  serous  or  watery  matter  remain  dis- 
tinct or  free  from  the  mixture  of  particles  of  the  cheesy 
and  buttery  matters.  It  also  holds  in  suspension  some 
alkaline  salts  and  sugar  of  milk,  to  the  extent  of  from 
three  to  four  per  cent,  of  its  weight. 

We  have,  then, 

|  Cream.  {IStS-milk.}  Water- 

Milk'L-        a     -ii   /Curd.    [Buttery  and  cheesy  residuum,!  j^^ 
ISkimmed  milk.|Whey>  jSugir  of  milk.  j^^ 

It  may  be  stated,  in  other  words,  that  milk  is  com- 
posed chiefly  of  caseine,  or  curd,  which  gives  it  its 
strength,  and  from  which  cheese  is  made  ;  a  butyra- 
ceous  or  oily  substance,  which  gives  it  its  richness  ;  a 
sugar  of  milk,  to  which  it  owes  its  sweetness,  and  a 
watery  substance,  which  makes  it  refreshing  as  a  beve- 
rage ;  together  with  traces  of  alkaline  salts,  from  whence 
are  derived  its  flavor  and  medicinal  properties ;  and 
that  these  constituents  appear  in  proportions  which 
vary  in  different  specimens,  according  to  the  breed 
of  the  animal,  the  food,  the  length  of  time  after  parturi- 
tion, etc. 

Milk  becomes  sour,  on  standing  exposed  to  a  warm 
atmosphere,  by  the  change  of  its  sugar  of  milk  into  an 
acid  known  as  lactic  acid ;  and  it  is  owing  to  this  sugar, 
and  the  chemical  changes  to  which  it  gives  rise,  that  milk 
is  susceptible  of  undergoing  all  degrees  of  fermenta- 
tion, and  of  being  made  into  a  fermented  and  palatable 
but  intoxicating  liquor,  which,  by  distillation,  produces 
pure  alcohol.     This  liquor  is  extensively  used  in  some 


202  MILK-WINE. THE     UDDER. 

countries.  The  arrack  of  the  Arabs  is  sometimes  made 
from  camel's  milk. 

The  Tartars  make  most  of  their  spirituous  liquors 
from  milk ;  and  for  this  purpose  they  prefer  mare's  milk, 
on  account  of  its  larger  percentage  of  sugar,  which 
causes  a  greater  and  more  active  fermentation.  The 
liquor  made  from  it  is  termed  milk-wine,  or  khoumese. 
It  resembles  beer,  and  has  intoxicating  qualities.  The 
process  of  manufacture  is  very  simple.  The  milk,  being 
allowed  first  to  turn  sour,  is  then  heated  to  the  proper 
temperature,  when  it  begins  to  ferment ;  and  in  a  day  in 
summer,  or  two  or  three  days  in  winter,  the  process  is 
completed,  and  the  liquor  may  be  kept  several  weeks 
without  losing  its  good  qualities. 

The  admirable  though  complicated  organization  of 
the  udder  and  teats  of  the  cow  has  already  been 
explained,  in  speaking  of  the  manner  of  milking.  But 
it  may  be  said,  in  general,  that  the  number  of  stomachs 
or  powerful  digestive  organs  of  the  ruminants  is  won- 
derfully adapted  to  promote  the  largest  secretions  of 
every  kind. 

The  udder  of  the  cow,  the  more  immediate  and 
important  receptacle  of  milk,  and  in  which  other  milk- 
vessels  terminate,  is  divided  into  two  sections,  and  each 
of  these  sections  is  subdivided  into  two  others,  mak- 
ing four  divisions,  each  constituting  in  itself,  to  some 
extent,  an  organ  of  secretion.  But  it  is  well  known 
that,  as  a  general  thing,  the  lateral  section,  comprising 
the  two  hind  teats,  usually  secretes  larger  quantities 
of  milk  than  the  front  section,  and  that  its  development, 
both  external  and  internal,  is  usually  the  greatest. 

Milk  is  exceedingly  sensitive  to  numerous  influences, 
many  of  which  are  not  well  understood.  It  is  probably 
true  that  the  milk  of  each  of  the  divisions  of  the  udder 
differs  to   some   extent  from  that  of  the   others  in  the 


FEEDING. 


WINTER    MILK.  203 


same  animal ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  the  milk  of  dif- 
ferent cows,  fed  on  the  same  food,  has  marked  differ- 
ences in  quality  and  composition.  But  food,  no  doubt, 
has  a  more  powerful  and  immediate  effect  than  any- 
thing else,  as  we  should  naturally  suppose  from  the  fact 
that  it  goes  directly  to  supply  all  the  secretions  of  the 
body.  Feeding  exclusively  on  dry  food,  for  instance, 
produces  a  thicker,  more  buttery  and  cheesy  milk, 
though  less  abundant  in  quantity,  than  feeding  on  moist 
and  succulent  food.  The  former  will  be  more  nutritive 
than  the  latter. 

Cows  in  winter  will  usually  give  a  milk  much  richer 
in  butter  and  less  cheesy  than  in  summer,  for  the 
same  reason  ;  while  in  summer  their  milk  is  richer  in 
cheese  and  less  buttery  than  in  winter.  As  already 
intimated,  the  frequency  of  milking  has  its  effect  on  the 
quality.  Milking  but  once  a  day  would  give  a  more 
condensed  and  buttery  milk  than  milking  twice  or 
three  times.  The  separation  of  the  different  constitu- 
ents of  milk  begins,  undoubtedly,  before  it  leaves  the 
udder ;  and  hence  we  find  that  the  milk  first  drawn  from 
the  cow  at  a  milking  is  far  more  watery  than  that 
drawn  later,  the  last  drawn,  commonly  called  the  strip- 
pings,  being  the  richest  of  all,  and  containing  from  six 
to  twelve  times  as  much  butter  as  the  first. 

Many  other  influences  affect  the  milk  of  cows,  both  in 
quantity  and  quality,  as  the  length  of  time  after  calving, 
the  age  and  health  of  the  cow,  the  season  of  the  year, 
etc.  Milk  is  whiter  in  color  in  winter  than  in  summer, 
even  when  the  feeding  is  precisely  the  same.  At 
certain  seasons  the  milk  of  the  same  cow  is  bluer  than 
at  others.     This  is  often  observable  in  dog-days. 

The  specific  gravity  of  milk  is  greater  than  that  of 
water,  that  of  the  latter  being  one  thousand,  and  that 
of  the  former  one  thousand  and  thirty-one  on  an  average. 


204  PERCENTAGE     OF    CREAM. 

though  it  varies  greatly  as  it  comes  from  different  cows, 
and  even  at  different  times  from  the  same  cow.  A  feed- 
ing of  salt  given  to  the  cow  will,  in  a  few  hours,  cause 
the  specific  gravity  of  her  milk  to  vary  from  one  to 
three  per  cent. 

Milk  will  ordinarily  produce  from  ten  to  fifteen  per 
cent,  of  its  own  volume  in  cream  ;  or,  on  an  average,  not 
far  from  twelve  and  a  half  per  cent.  Eight  quarts  of 
milk  will,  therefore,  make  about  one  quart  of  cream. 
But  the  milk  of  cows  that  are  fed  so  as  to  produce  the 
richest  milk  and  butter  will  often  very  far  exceed  this, 
sometimes  giving  over  twenty  per  cent,  of  cream,  and 
in  very  rare  instances  twenty-five  or  twenty-six  per 
cent.  The  product  of  milk  in  cream  is  more  regular 
than  the  product  of  cream  in  butter.  A  very  rich  milk 
is  lighter  than  milk  of  a  poor  quality,  for  the  reason 
that  cream  is  lighter  than  skim-milk. 

Of  the  different  constituents  of  milk,  caseine  is  that 
which  most  resembles  animal  matter,  and  hence  the 
intrinsic  value  of  cheese  as  a  nutritive  article  of  food. 
Hence,  also,  the  nutritive  qualities  of  skimmed  milk, 
or  milk  from  which  the  cream  only  has  been  removed, 
while  the  milk  is  still  sweet.  The  oily  or  fatty  parts 
of  milk  furnish  heat  to  the  animal  system ;  but  this  is 
easily  supplied  by  other  substances. 

From  the  peculiar  nature  of  milk,  and  its  extreme 
sensitiveness  to  external  influences,  the  importance  of 
the  utmost  care  in  its  management  must  be  apparent  : 
and  this  care  must  begin  from  the  moment  when  it 
leaves  the  udder,  especially  if  it  is  to  be  made  into 
butter.  In  this  case  it  would  be  better,  if  it  were  con- 
venient, to  keep  the  different  kinds  of  milk  of  the  same 
milking  by  itself  —  that  which  comes  first  from  the 
udder,  and  that  which  is  drawn  last ;  and  if  the  first  third 
could  be  set  by  itself,  and  the  second  and  the  third  parts 


DIFFERENT     QUALITIES     AS     THEY     RISE.       205 

by  themselves,  the  time  required  to  raise  the  cream  of 
each  part  would  doubtless  be  considerably  less  than  it 
is  where  the  different  elements  of  the  milk  are  so  inti- 
mately mixed  together  in  the  process  of  milking,  after 
being  once  partially  separated,  as  they  are  before  they 
leave  the  udder. 

After  milking,  as  little  time  as  possible  should  elapse 
before  the  milk  is  brought  to  rest  in  the  pan.  The 
remarks  of  Dr.  Anderson  on  the  treatment  of  milk  are 
pertinent  in  this  connection.  "  If  milk,"  says  he,  "  be 
put  into  a  dish  and  allowed  to  stand  until  it  throws  up 
cream,  the  portion  of  cream  rising  first  to  the  surface 
is  richer  in  quality  and  equal  in  quantity  to  that  which 
rises  in  a  second  equal  space  of  time  ;  and  the  cream 
which  rises  in  a  second  interval  of  time  is  greater  in 
quantity  and  richer  in  quality  than  that  which  rises  in  a 
third  equal  space  of  time.  That  of  the  third  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  fourth,  and  so  of  the  rest;  the  cream 
that  rises  continuing  progressively  to  decrease  in 
quantity  and  quality,  so  long  as  any  rises  to  the  surface. 

"  Thick  milk  always  throws  up  a  much  smaller  pro- 
portion of  the  cream  which  it  actually  contains  than 
milk  that  is  thinner,  but  the  cream  is  of  a  richer  qual- 
ity ;  and  if  water  be  added  to  that  thick  milk,  it  will 
afford  a  considerably  greater  quantity  of  cream,  and 
consequently  more  butter,  than  it  would  have  clone  if 
allowed  to  remain  pure  ;  but  its  quality  at  the  same  time 
is  greatly  deteriorated. 

"  Milk  which  is  put  into  a  bucket  or  other  proper 
vessel,  and  carried  in  it  to  a  considerable  distance,  so  as 
to  be  much  agitated  and  in  part  cooled  before  it  be  put 
into  the  milk-pans  to  settle  for  cream,  never  throws  up 
so  much  or  so  rich  a  cream  as  if  the  same  milk  had  been 
put  into  the  milk-pans,  without  agitation,  directly  after  it 
was  milked." 

18 


206       TEMPERATURE     OF    THE     BEST     DAIRIES. 

Milk  as  it  comes  from  the  cow  is  about  blood-heat,  or 
98°  Fah.  It  should  be  cooled  off  as  little  as  possible 
before  coming  to  rest.  With  this  object  in  view,  the 
pails  may  be  rinsed  with  hot  water  before  milking,  and 
the  distance  from  the  place  of  milking  to  the  milk-room 
should  be  as  short  as  possible  ;  but,  even  with  all  these 
precautions,  the  fall  in  temperature  will  be  considerable. 

From  what  has  already  been  said  with  regard  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  cream  or  oily  particles  of  the  milk 
rise  to  the  surface,  and  the  difficulty  of  rising  through  a 
great  space,  on  account  of  their  intimate  entanglement 
with  the  cheesy  and  other  matters,  the  importance  of 
using  shallow  pans  must  be  sufficiently  obvious. 

To  facilitate  and  hasten  the  rising  of  the  butter 
or  oily  particles,  the  importance  of  keeping  the  milk- 
room  at  a  uniform  and  pretty  high  temperature  will 
be  equally  obvious.  The  greatest  density  of  milk  is 
at  or  near  the  temperature  of  41°  Fah. ;  and  at  this  point 
the  butter  particles  will,  of  course,  rise  with  the  great- 
est difficulty  and  slowness,  and  bring  up  a  far  greater 
amount  of  cheese  particles  than  under  more  favorable 
circumstances.  These  caseous  and  watery  matters,  as 
has  been  already  stated,  cause  the  cream  or  the  butter 
to  look  white,  and  to  ferment  and  become  rancid.  To 
avoid  this,  the  temperature  is  generally  kept,  in  the  best 
butter-dairies,  as  high  as  from  58°  to  62°.  Some  recom- 
mend keeping  the  milk  at  over  70°,  and  from  that  to  80°, 
at  which  temperature  the  cream,  they  say,  rises  very  rap- 
idly, especially  if  the  depth  through  which  it  has  to  rise 
is  but  slight.  But  that,  in  the  opinion  of  most  practical 
dairymen,  is  too  high. 

To  obtain  the  greatest  amount  of  cream  from  a  given 
quantity  of  milk,  the  depth  in  the  pan  should,  it  seems 
to  me,  never  exceed  two  inches.  A  high  temperature 
and  shallow  depth,  as  they  liquefy  the  milk  and  facilitat  i 


MOIST     CLIMATES. CLEANLINESS.  207 

the  rising  of  the  particles,  tend  to  secure  a  cream  free 
from  the  cheesy  matter,  and  such  cream  will  make  a 
quality  of  butter  both  more  delicate  to  the  taste,  and 
less  likely  to  become  rancid,  than  any  other. 

It  has  already  been  intimated,  in  another  connection, 
that  neither  the  largest  quantity  nor  the  best  quality 
of  milk  is  given  by  the  cow  till  after  she  has  had  two 
or  three  calves,  or  has  arrived  at  the  age  of  five  or  six 
years.  It  may  also  be  said,  what  cannot  fail  to  have 
attracted  the  attention  of  observing  dairymen,  that  in 
very  dry  seasons  the  quantity  of  milk  yielded  will  gen- 
erally be  less,  though  the  quality  will  be  richer,  than  in 
moist  and  mild  seasons. 

Hence  it  may  be  inferred  that  moist  climates  are 
much  more  favorable  to  the  production  of  milk  than  dry 
ones  ;  and  this  also  has  been  frequently  observed  and 
admitted  to  be  a  well-known  fact.  From  these  facts  it 
may  be  stated  that  dry  and  warm  weather  increases 
the  quantity  of  butter,  but  it  is  also  true  that  cooler 
weather  produces  a  greater  amount  of  cheese.  A  state 
of  pregnancy,  it  is  obvious,  must  reduce  the  quality  of 
the  milk,  and  cause  it  to  yield  less  cream  than  before. 

In  the  treatment  of  milk  the  utmost  cleanliness  is  es- 
pecially requisite.  The  pails,  the  strainers,  the  pans,  the 
milk-room,  and,  in  short,  everything  connected  with  the 
dairy,  must  be  kept  neat  and  clean  to  an  extent  which 
few  but  the  very  best  dairy-women  can  appreciate.  The 
smallest  portion  of  old  milk  left  to  sour  in  the  strainers 
or  pans  will  be  sure  to  taint  them,  and  impart  their  bad 
flavor  to  the  new  milk  put  into  them.  Every  one  is 
familiar  with  the  fact  that  an  exceedingly  small  quantity 
of  yeast  causes  an  active  fermentation.  The  process  is 
a  chemical  one,  and  another  familiar  instance  of  it  is 
in  the  distillation  of  liquors  and  the  brewing  of  beer, 
where  the  malt  creates  a  very  active  fermentation.    In 


208  ADULTERATIONS.  —  SWILL    MILK. 

a  similar  manner  the  smallest  particle  of  sour  milk  will 
taint  a  large  quantity  of  sweet. 

The  milk-room  should  be  removed  from  dampness, 
and  all  gases  which  might  be  injurious  to  the  milk  by 
infecting  the  atmosphere.  If  the  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere and  the  temperature,  as  has  been  stated,  affect  it, 
all  contact  with  foreign  substances  to  which  it  is  liable 
in  careless  and  slovenly  milking,  and  all  air  rendered 
impure  by  vegetables  and  innumerable  other  things 
kept  in  a  house-cellar,  will  be  much  more  liable  to  taint 
and  injure  it.  Milk  appears  to  absorb  odors  from  ob- 
jects near  it,  to  such  an  extent  that  a  piece  of  catnip 
lying  near  the  pan  has  been  known  to  impart  its  flavor 
to  it. 

Milk,  as  sold  in  most  large  cities,  is  often  adulterated 
to  a  great  extent,  but  most  frequently  with  water.  Xot 
unfrequently,  too,  a  part  of  the  cream  is  first  taken  off, 
and  water  afterwards  added ;  in  which  case  the  use  of 
burnt  sugar  is  very  common  for  coloring  the  milk,  the 
blueness  of  which  would  otherwise  lead  to  detection. 
The  adulteration  of  pure  milk  from  the  healthy  cow  by 
water,  though  dishonest,  and  objectionable  in  the  high- 
est degree,  is  far  less  iniquitous  in  its  consequences 
than  the  nefarious  traffic  in  "  swill-milk," '  or  milk  pro- 
duced from  cows  fed  entirely  on  "  still-slops,"  from 
which  they  soon  become  diseased,  after  which  the  milk 
contains  a  subtle  poison,  which  is  as  difficult  of  detec- 
tion by  any  known  process  of  chemistry  as  the  miasma 
of  an  atmosphere  tainted  with  yellow  fever  or  the  chol- 
era. The  simple  fact  is  sufficiently  palpable,  that  no 
pure  and  healthy  milk  can  be  produced  by  ao  unhealthy 
and  diseased  animal ;  and  that  no  animal  can  long  remain 
healthy  that  is  fed  on  an  unnatural  food,  and  treated  in 
the  manner  too  common  around  the  distilleries  of  many 
large  cities. 


THE    SPECIFIC-GRAVITY    TEST.  209 

It  is  evident,  from  the  well-known  influence  which 
11  still-slops  "  and  other  exceedingly  succulent  food  have 
in  increasing  the  amount  of  water  in  the  milk,  that  adul- 
teration  may  be  effected  by  means  of  the  food,  as  well 
as  by  addition  of  water  to  the  milk  itself.  It  is  evident, 
too,  on  a  moment's  reflection,  that  the  specific  gravity 
of  pure  milk  must  vary  exceedingly,  as  it  comes  from 
different  cows,  or  from  the  same  cow  at  different  times. 
This  variation  reached  to  the  extent  of  twenty-three 
degrees  in  the  milk  of  forty-two  different  cows,  or  from 
one  thousand  and  eight  to  one  thousand  and  thirty-one  ; 
but  so  great  a  variation  is  very  rare,  and  not  to  be 
expected. 

No  reliable  conclusion,  as  to  whether  a  particular 
specimen  of  milk  has  been  adulterated  or  not,  can  there- 
fore be  drawn  from  the  differences  in  specific  gravity 
alone.  A  radical  difficulty  attending  this  test  arises 
from  the  fact  that  the  specific  gravity  both  of  water  and 
cream  is  less  than  that  of  pure  milk.  If,  therefore,  the 
hydrometer  sinks  deeper  into  the  fluid  than  would  be 
expected  in  ordinary  pure  milk,  how  is  it 
possible,  unless  the  variation  is  very  large,  to 
tell  whether  it  is  due  to  the  richness  of  the 
milk  in  cream,  or  to  the  water  ?  I  have, 
for  instance,  two  instruments,  each  labelled 
"  Lactometer,"  but  both  of  which  are  simple 
hydrometers  (Fig.  71),  or  specific  gravity 
testers,  one  of  which  is  graduated  with  the 
water-mark  0  and  that  of  pure  milk  20° ;  the 
water-mark  of  the  other  being  0,  like  the 
first,  and  that  of  pure  milk  100°.  Both  are 
the  same  in  principle,  the  only  difference 
being  in  the  graduation.  On  the  former, 
graduated  for  pure  milk  at  20°,  it  is  difficult 
to  tell  with  accuracy  the  small  variations  in 
Fig.  n.  1 $*  14 


210  VARIATION    IN    SPECIFIC     GRAVITY. 

the  percentage  of  water  or  cream,  the  divisions  on  the 
scale  are  so  minute,  while  the  latter  marks  them  so 
that  they  can  be  read  off  with  greater  ease  and  pre- 
cision. 

For  the  purpose  of  showing  the  difference  in  the  spe- 
cific gravity  in  different  specimens  of  pure  milk,  taken 
from  the  cows  in  the  morning,  and  allowed  to  cool  down 
to  about  60°,  1  used  the  latter  instrument  with  the  fol- 
lowing results :  The  first  pint  drawn  from  a  native  cow- 
stood  at  101°,  the  scale  being  graduated  at  100°  for  pure 
milk.  The  last  pint  of  the  same  milking,  being  the  strip- 
pings  of  the  same  cow,  stood  at  86°.  The  mixture  of  the 
two  pints  stood  at  about  93^-°.  The  milk  of  a  pure-bred 
Jersey  stood  at  95°,  that  of  an  Ayrshire  at  100°,  that 
of  a  Hereford  at  106°,  that  of  a  Devon  at  111°,  while  a 
thin  cream  stood  at  66°.  All  these  specimens  of  milk 
were  pure,  and  milked  at  the  same  time  in  the  morning, 
carefully  labelled  in  separate  vessels,  and  set  upon  the 
same  shelf  to  cool  off;  and  yet  the  variations  of  specific 
gravity  amounted  to  25°,  or,  taking  the  average  quality 
of  the  native  cows'  milk  at  934-°,  the  variations  amounted 

to  m°. 

But,  knowing  the  specific  gravity,  at  the  outset,  of 
any  specimen  of  milk,  the  hydrometer  would  show  the 
amount  of  water  added.  This  cheap  and  simple  instru- 
ment is  therefore  of  frequent  service. 

The  lactometer  is  a  very  different  instrument,  and 
measures  the  comparative  richness  of  different  speci- 
mens of  milk.  It  is  of  very  great  service  both  in  the 
butter  and  cheese  dairy,  for  testing  the  comparative 
value  of  different  cows  for  the  purposes  for  which  they 
are  kept.  This  instrument  is  very  simple  and  cheap, 
and  the  practical  dairyman  can  tell  by  it  what  cows  he 
can  best  part  with  without  detriment  to  his  business. 


THE    LACTOMETER. 


211 


No  cow  should  be  admitted  to  a  herd  kept  for  butter- 
making  without  knowing  her  qualities  in  this  respect 
Many  would  find,  on  examination,  that  some  of  their 
cows,  though  giving  a  good  quantity,  were  compara- 
tively worthless  to  them.  Such  was  the  experience  of 
John  Holbert,  of  Chemung,  New  York,  who,  in  his 
statement  to  the  state  agricultural  society,  says :  "  I 
find,  by  churning  the  milk  of  each  cow  separately,  that 
one  of  my  best  cows  will  make  as  much  butter  as  three 
of  my  poorest,  giving  the  same  quantity  of  milk.  I  have 
kept,  a  dairy  for  twenty  years,  but  I  never  until  the 
past  season  knew  that  there  was  so  much  difference  in 


cows/ 


Fig.  72.    Lactometer. 

The  simplest  form  of  the  lactometer  is  a  series  of 
graduated  glass  tubes  (Fig.  72),  or  vials,  of  equal  diam- 
eter; generally  a  third  of  an  inch  inside,  and  about 
eleven  inches  long.  The  tubes  are  filled  to  an  equal 
height,  each  one  with  the  milk  of  a  different  cow,  and 
allowed  to  stand  for  the  cream  to  rise.  The  difference 
in  thickness  of  the  column  of  cream  will  be  very  per- 
ceptible, and  it  will  be  greater  than  most  people  imag- 
ine. The  effect  of  different  kinds  of  food  for  the  pro- 
duction  of  butter  may  be  studied  in  the  same  way. 


212  MODES    OF    PRESERVING     MILK. 

This  form  of  the  lactometer  was  invented  by  Sir  Joseph 
Banks. 

Various  means  are  used  for  the  preservation  of  milk. 
One  of  these  is  by  concentrating  it  by  boiling.  Where 
this  is  followed,  as  it  is  by  some  dairymen,  as  a  regular 
business,  the  milk  is  poured,  as  it  comes  from  the  dairy, 
into  long,  shallow,  copper  pans,  and  heated  to  a  temper- 
ature of  a  hundred  and  ten  degrees,  Fahrenheit.  A  lit- 
tle sugar  is  then  mixed  in,  and  the  whole  body  of  milk 
is  kept  in  motion  by  stirring  for  some  three  or  four 
hours.  The  water  is  evaporated,  leaving  the  milk  about 
one  fourth  of  its  original  bulk.  It  is  now  put  into  tin 
cans,  the  covers  of  which  are  soldered  on,  when  the 
cans  are  lowered  into  boiling  water.  After  remaining 
a  while,  they  are  taken  out  and  hermetically  sealed,  in 
which  condition  the  milk  will  keep  for  months.  Con- 
centrated milk  may  thus  be  taken  to  sea  or  elsewhere. 
Another  form  is  that  of  solidified  milk,  in  which  state  it 
is  easily  and  perfectly  soluble  in  water ;  and  when  so 
dissolved  with  a  proper  proportion  of  water,  it  assumes 
its  original  form  of  milk,  and  may  be  made  into  butter. 
A  statement  by  Dr.  Doremus,  in  the  New  York  Medical 
Journal,  explains  the  process,  as  follows : 

To  one  hundred  and  twelve  pounds  of  milk  twenty 
eight  pounds  of  Stuart's  white  sugar  were  added,  and  a 
trivial  portion  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  —  a  teaspoonful, 
—  merely  enough  to  insure  the  neutralizing  of  any  acid 
ity,  which,  in  the  summer  season,  is  exhibited  even  a 
few  minutes  after  milking,  although  inappreciable  to 
the  organs  of  taste.  The  sweet  milk  was  poured  into 
evaporating  pans  of  enamelled  iron,  imbedded  in  warm 
water  heated  by  steam.  A  thermometer  was  immersed 
in  each  of  these  water-baths,  that,  by  frequent  inspec- 
tion, the  temperature  might  not  rise  above  the  point 
which  years  of  experience  have  shown  advisable.     To 


SOLIDIFIED    MILK.  218 

facilitate  the  evaporation,  by  means  of  blowers  and 
other  ingenious  apparatus  a  current  of  air  is  established 
between  the  covers  of  the  pans  and  the  solidifying 
milk.  Connected  with  the  steam-engine  is  an  arrange- 
ment of  stirrers,  for  agitating  the  milk  slightly,  while 
evaporating,  and  so  gently  as  not  to  churn  it.  In  about 
three  hours  the  milk  and  sugar  assumed  a  pasty  con- 
sistency, and  delighted  the  palates  of  all  present.  By 
constant  manipulation  and  warming,  it  was  reduced  to 
a  rich,  creamy-looking  powder,  then  exposed  to  the  air 
to  cool,  weighed  into  parcels  of  a  pound  each,  and  by  a 
press,  with  the  force  of  a  ton  or  two,  made  to  assume 
the  compact  form  of  a  tablet  (the  size  of  a  small  brick), 
in  which  shape,  covered  with  tin-foil,  it  is  presented  to 
the  public. 

"Some  of  the  solidified  milk  which  had  been  grated 
and  dissolved  in  water  the  previous  evening  was  found 
covered  with  a  rich  cream ;  this,  skimmed  off,  was  soon 
converted  into  excellent  butter.  Another  solution  was 
speedily  converted  into  wine-whey  by  a  treatment  pre- 
cisely similar  to  that  employed  in  using  ordinary  milk. 
It  fully  equalled  the  expectations  of  all ;  so  that  solidi- 
fied milk  will  hereafter  rank  among  the  necessary 
appendages  to  the  sick  room.  In  fine,  this  article  makes 
paps,  custards,  puddings,  and  cakes,  equal  to  the  best 
milk ;  and  one  may  be  sure  it  is  an  unadulterated  article, 
obtained  from  well-pastured  cattle,  and  not  the  produce 
of  distillery  slops  ;  neither  can  it  be  watered.  For  our 
steamships,  our  packets,  for  those  travelling  by  land  or 
by  sea,  for  hotel  purposes,  or  use  in  private  families, 
for  young  or  old,  we  recommend  it  cordially  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  fresh  milk." 

A  pound  of  this  solidified  milk,  it  is  said,  will  make 
five  pints  when  dissolved  in  water. 

An  other  favorite  form  in  which  milk  is  used  is  that 


214  HOW    TO    MAKE    ICE-CREAM. 

known  as  ice-cream,  a  cheap  and  healthy  luxury  during 
the  summer  months.  It  is  frozen  in  a  simple  machine 
made  for  the  purpose,  in  the  best  form  of  which  the 
time  of  the  operation  is  from  six  to  ten  minutes.  The 
richest  quality  of  ice-cream  is  made  from  cream,  in  the 
following  manner :  To  one  quart  of  cream  use  the 
yolks  of  three  eggs.  Put  the  cream  over  the  fire  till  it 
boils,  during  which  time  the  eggs  are  beaten  up  with 
half  a  pound  of  white  sugar,  powdered  fine  ;  and  when 
the  cream  boils  stir  it  upon  the  eggs  and  sugar,  then  let 
it  stand  till  quite  cold,  then  add  the  juice  of  three  or 
four  lemons.  It  is  then  ready  to  put  into  the  freezer. 
The  heat  of  the  cream  partially  cooks  the  eggs,  and  the 
stirring  must  be  continued  to  prevent  their  cooking  too 
much. 

A  somewhat  simpler  receipt,  given  by  the  confec- 
tioners, is  the  following :  To  half  a  pound  of  powdered 
sugar  add  the  juice  of  three  lemons.  Mix  the  sugar  and 
lemon  together,  and  then  add  one  quart  of  cream.  This 
is  less  rich  and  delicate  than  the  preceding,  but  is  quite 
rich  enough  for  common  use,  and  some  trouble  is  saved. 

The  following  receipt  makes  a  very  good  ice-cream. 

Two  quarts  of  good  rich  milk;  four  fresh  eggs; 
three  quarters  of  a  pound  of  white  sugar ;  six  teaspoons 
of  Bermuda  arrow-root.  Hub  the  arrow-root  smooth 
in  a  little  cold  milk,  beat  the  eggs  and  sugar  together, 
bring  the  milk  to  the  boiling  point,  then  stir  in  the 
arrow-root ;  remove  it  then  from  the  fire,  and  immedi- 
ately add  the  eggs  and  sugar,  stirring  briskly,  to  keep 
the  eggs  from  cooking,  then  set  aside  to  cool.  If 
flavored  with  extracts,  let  it  be  done  just  before  putting 
it  in  the  freezer.  If  the  vanilla  bean  is  used,  it  must  be 
boiled  in  the  milk.  The  preparation  must  be  thoroughly 
cooled  before  the  freezing  is  proceeded  with. 

The  ice-cream  by  this  receipt  may  be  produced  at  a 


MILK     OF    SPAYED     COWS.  215 

cost  not  exceeding  twenty-five  cents  a  quart,  calling  the 
milk  five  cents  a  quart,  and  the  eggs  a  cent  apiece,  and 
including  the  cost  of  labor.  It  is  quite  equal  to  that 
commonly  furnished  by  the  confectioners  at  seventy- 
five  cents  a  quart.  The  arrow-root  may  be  dispensed 
with.     The  freezer  is  a  cheap  and  simple  machine. 

After  the  cream  has  frozen  in  the  machine,  it  should 
stand  an  hour  or  two  to  harden  before  it  is  used. 

To  secure  a  more  uniform  flow  and  a  richer  quality 
of  milk,  cows  are  sometimes  spayed,  or  castrated.  The 
milk  of  spayed  cows  is  pretty  uniform  in  quantity, 
and  this  quantity  will  be,  on  an  average,  a  little  more 
than  before  the  operation  was  performed.  But  few 
instances  have  come  under  my  observation,  and  those 
few  have  resulted  satisfactorily,  the  quality  of  the  milk 
having  been  greatly  improved,  the  yield  becoming 
regular  for  some  years,  and  varying  only  by  the  differ- 
ence in  the  succulence  of  the  food.  The  proper  time 
for  spaying  is  about  five  or  six  weeks  after  calving,  or 
at  the  time  when  the  largest  quantity  of  milk  is  given. 
There  seem  to  be  some  advantages  in  spaying  for  milk 
and  butter  dairies,  where  the  raising  of  stock  is  not 
attended  to.  The  cows  are  more  quiet,  never  being 
liable  to  returns  of  seasons  of  heat,  which  always  more 
or  less  affect  the  milk  both  in  quantity  and  quality. 
They  give  milk  nearly  uniform  in  these  respects,  for 
several  years,  provided  the  food  is  uniformly  succulent 
and  nutritious.  Their  milk  is  influenced  like  that  of 
other  cows,  though  to  less  extent,  by  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  food ;  so  that  in  winter,  unless  the  animal  is 
properly  attended  to,  the  yield  will  decrease  somewhat, 
but  will  rise  again  as  good  feed  returns.  This  uniform- 
ity for  the  milk-dairy  is  of  immense  advantage.  Besides, 
the  cow,  when  old,  and  inclined  to  dry  up,  takes  on  fat 


216 


ANALYSES     OF     MILK 


with  greater  rapidity,  and  produces  a  juicy  and  tender 
beef,  superior,  at  the  same  age,  to  that  of  the  ox.  The 
operation  of  spaying  is  simple,  and  may  be  performed 
by  any  veterinary  surgeon,  without  much  risk  of 
injury. 

The  milk  of  the  cow  has  often  been  analyzed.    It  was 
found  by  Haidlen  to  consist  of 


Water,  .     .     .     . 
Butter,  .     .     .     . 
Caseine,       .     .     . 
Sugar  of  milk, 
Phosphate  of  lime, 


173. 

30. 
48.2 
43.9 
2.31 


Magnesia, 42 

Iron, 47 

Chloride  of  Potassium,  .     .1.44 
Sodium  and  Soda,      ...      .66 

1000. 


But  its  composition,  as  already  intimated,  varies 
exceedingly  with  the  food  of  the  animal,  and  is 
influenced  by  an  infinite  variety  of  circumstance*. 

Skim-milk  is  much  more  watery  than  whole  milk.  It 
was  found  by  one  analysis  to  contain  about  97  per  cent, 
of  water  and  3  per  cent,  of  caseine. 

Swill-milk,  or  milk  from  cows  fed  on  "  still-slops,"  in 
New  York,  was  found  by  analysis  to  contain  less  than 
1.5  per  cent,  of  butter,  some  specimens  having  even 
less  than  one  per  cent. 

The  colostrum,  or  milk  of  the  cow  just  after  calving, 
contains  a  large  proportion  of  cheesy  matter.  Its 
amount  of  caseine  was  found  by  careful  analysis  to  be 
15.1  per  cent.,  of  butter  2.6,  mucous  matter  2,  and 
water  80.3,  there  being  only  a  trace  of  sugar  of  milk. 

The  measures  for  milk  in  common  use  in  this  country 
are  those  used  for  wine  and  beer.  The  wine  quart  is 
about  one  fifth  less  than  the  beer  quart,  and  is  that 
most  commonly  used  in  England.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  no  uniform  standard  has  been  adopted  throughout 
the  country. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

BUTTER    AND    THE    BUTTER-DAIRY 


At  once  foregoes  its  quality  and  name. 
From  knotty  particles  first  floating  wide, 
Congealing  butter  's  dashed  from  side  to  side." 

Butter,  as  we  have  seen,  is  the  oily  or  fatty  con- 
stituent of  all  good  milk,  mechanically  united  or  held  in 
suspension  by  the  solution  of  caseine  or  cheesy  matter 
in  water.  It  is  already  formed  in  the  udder  of  the  cow, 
and  the  operations  required  after  it  leaves  the  udder,  to 
produce  it,  effect  merely  the  separation,  more  or  less 
complete,  of  the  butter  from  the  cheese  and  the  whey. 

This  being  the  case,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that 
butter  was  known  at  an  early  date.  The  wandering 
tribes,  accustomed  to  take  on  their  journeys  a  supply 
of  milk  in  skins,  would  find  it  formed  by  the  agitation 
of  travelling,  and  thus  would  be  suggested  the  first 
rude  and  simple  process  of  churning. 

But  it  is  not  probable  that  the  Jews  possessed  a 
knowledge  of  it ;  and  it  is  pretty  well  settled,  at  the 
present  time,  that  the  passages  in  our  English  version 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  which  it  is  used  are  errone- 
ously translated,  and  that  wherever  the  word  butter 
occurs  the  word  milk,  or  sour,  thick  milk,  or  cream, 
should  be  substituted.  And  so  in  Isaiah,  "  Milk  and 
honey  shall  he  eat,"  instead  of  "  butter ;  "  and  in  Job 
(29:  6),  r  When  I  washed  my  feet  in  milk,"  instead  of 
10 


218       HISTORY.  —  CREAM     THAT     RISES    FIRST. 

"  butter."  And  the  expression  in  Prov.  (30 :  33), 
"  Surely  the  churning  of  milk  bringeth  forth  butter," 
would  be  better  translated,  according  to  the  best 
critics,  "  the  pressing  of  the  milker  bringeth  forth 
milk,'   or  the  "pressing  of  milk  bringeth  forth  cheese." 

In  the  oldest  Greek  writers  milk  and  cheese  are 
spoken  of,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  butter  was 
known  to  them.  The  Greeks  obtained  their  knowledge 
of  it  from  the  Scythians  or  the  Thracians,  and  the 
Romans  obtained  theirs  from  the  Germans. 

In  the  time  of  Christ  it  was  used  chiefly  as  an  oint- 
ment in  the  baths,  and  as  a  medicine.  In  warm  lati- 
tudes, as  in  the  southern  part  of  Europe,  even  at  the 
present  day,  its  use  is  comparatively  limited,  the  deli- 
cious oil  of  the  olive  supplying  its  place. 

I  have  already  stated  that  all  good  milk  of  the  cow 
contained  butter  enclosed  in  little  round  globules  held 
in  suspension,  or  floating  in  the  other  substances.  As 
soon  as  the  milk  comes  to  rest  after  leaving  the  udder, 
these  round  particles,  being  lighter  than  the  mass  of 
cheesy  and  watery  materials  by  which  they  are  sur- 
rounded, begin  to  rise  and  work  their  way  to  the  sur- 
face. The  largest  globules,  being  comparatively  the 
lightest,  rise  first,  and  form  the  first  layer  of  cream, 
which  is  the  best,  since  it  is  less  filled  with  caseine. 
The  next  smaller,  rising  a  little  slower,  are  more 
entangled  with  other  substances,  and  bring  more  of 
them  to  the  surface  ;  and  the  smallest  rise  the  slowest 
and  the  last,  and  come  up  loaded  with  foreign  sub- 
stances, and  produce  an  inferior  quality  of  cream  and 
butter.  The  most  delicate  cream,  as  well  as  the  sweet- 
est and  most  fragrant  butter,  is  that  obtained  by  a  first, 
skimming,  only  a  few  hours  after  the  milk  is  set.  Of 
three  skimmings,  at  six,  twelve,  and  eighteen  hours 
after  the  milk  is  strained  into  the  pan,  that  first  obtained 


MILK    AND    WATER, 


219 


will  make  more  and  richer  butter  than  the  second,  and 
that  next  obtained  richer  than  the  third,  and  so  on. 

The  last  quart  of  milk  drawn  at  a  milking,  for  reasons 
already  stated,  will  make  a  more  delicious  and  savory 
butter  than  the  first ;  and  if  the  last  quart  or  two  of  a 
milking  is  set  by  itself,  and  the  first  cream  that  rises 
taken  from  it  after  standing  only  five  or  six  hours,  it 
will  produce  the  richest  and  highest-flavored  butter  the 
cow  is  capable  of  giving,  under  like  circumstances  as  to 
season  and  feed. 

The  separation  of  the  butter  particles  from  the  others 
is  slower  and  more  difficult  in  proportion  to  the  thick- 
ness and  richness  of  the  milk.  Hence  in  winter,  on  dry 
feeding,  the  milk  being  richer  and  more  buttery,  the 
cream  or  particles  of  butter  are  slower  and  longer  in 
rising.  But,  as  heat  liquefies  milk,  the  difficulty  is  over- 
come in  part  by  elevating  the  temperature.  The  same 
effect  is  produced  by  mixing  a  little  water  into  the  milk 
when  it  is  set.  It  aids  the  separation,  and  consequently 
more  cream  will  rise  in  the  same  space  of  time,  from 
the  same  amount  of  rich  milk,  with  a  little  water  in  it, 
than  without.  Water  slightly  warm,  if  in  cold  weather, 
will  produce  the  most  perceptible  effect.  The  quantity 
of  butter  will  be  greater  from  milk  treated  in  this  way; 
the  quality,  slightly  deteriorated. 

It  must  be  apparent,  from  what  has  been  said,  that 
butter  may  be  produced  by  agitating  the  whole  body 
of  the  milk,  and  thus  breaking  up  the  filmy  coatings  of 
the  globules,  as  well  as  by  letting  it  stand  for  the  cream 
to  rise.  This  course  is  preferred  by  many  practical 
dairymen,  and  is  the  general  practice  in  some  of  the 
countries  most  celebrated  for  superior  butter. 

The  general  treatment  of  milk  and  the  management 
of  cream  have  been  already  alluded  to  in  a  former  chap- 
ter.    It  has  been  seen  that  the  first  requisites  to  sue- 


220  CLEANLINESS.  —  GOOD    BUTTER. 

cessful  dairy  husbandry  are  good  cows,  and  abundant 
and  good  feeding,  adapted  to  the  special  object  of  the 
dairy,  whether  it  be  milk,  butter,  or  cheese ;  and  that, 
with  both  these  conditions,  an  absolute  cleanliness  in 
every  process,  from  the  milking  of  the  cow  to  bringing 
the  butter  upon  the  table,  is  indispensably  necessary. 

Cleanliness  may,  indeed,  with  propriety  be  regarded 
as  the  chief  requisite  in  the  manufacture  of  good  but- 
ter; for  the  least  suspicion  of  a  want  of  it  turns  the 
appetite  at  once,  while  both  milk  and  cream  are  so  ex- 
ceedingly sensitive  to  the  slightest  taint  in  the  air,  in 
everything  with  which  they  come  in  contact,  as  to 
impart  the  unmistakable  evidence  of  any  negligence, 
in  the  taste  and  flavor  of  the  butter. 

It  is  safe  to  say,  therefore,  that  good  butter  depends 
more  upon  the  manufacture  than  upon  any  other  one 
thing,  and  perhaps  than  all  others  put  together.  So  im- 
portant is  this  point,  that  a  judicious  writer  remarks  that 
"  in  every  district  where  good  butter  is  made  it  is  univer- 
sally attributed  to  the  richness  of  the  pastures,  though 
it  is  a  well-known  fact  that,  take  a  skilful  dairymaid 
from  that  district  into  another,  where  good  butter  is  not 
usually  made,  and  where,  of  course,  the  pastures  are 
deemed  very  unfavorable,  she  will  make  butter  as  good 
as  she  used  to  do.  And  bring  one  from  this  last  district 
into  the  other,  and  she  will  find  that  she  cannot  make 
better  butter  there  than  she  did  before,  unless  she  takes 
lessons  from  the  servants,  or  others  whom  she  finds 
there  ;  "  and  a  French  writer  very  justly  observes  that 
"  the  particular  nature  of  Bretagne  butter,  whose  color, 
flavor,  and  consistence,  are  so  much  prized,  depends 
neither  on  the  pasture  nor  on  the  particular  species  of 
cow,  but  on  the  mode  of  making;"  and  this  will  hold- 
to  a  considerable  extent,  in  every  country  where  but- 
ter is  made. 


THE    DAIRY-ROOM.  221 

Many  things,  indeed,  concur  to  produce  the  best  re- 
sults, and  it  would  be  useless  to  underrate  the  import- 
ance of  any  ;  but,  with  the  best  of  cows  to  impart  the 
proper  color  and  consistency  to  butter,  the  sweetest 
feed  and  the  purest  water  to  secure  a  delicate  flavor, 
the  utmost  care  must  still  be  bestowed  by  the  dairymaid 
upon  every  process  of  manufacture,  or  else  the  best  of 
milk  and  cream  will  be  spoiled,  or  produce  an  article 
which  will  bring  only  a  low  price  in  the  market,  when, 
with  greater  skill,  it  might  have  obtained  the  highest. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  care  requisite  to  pre- 
serve the  milk  from  taint,  it  may  be  inferred  that  atten- 
tion to  the  milk  and  dairy  room  is  of  no  small  importance. 
In  very  large  butter-dairies,  a  building  is  devoted  ex- 
clusively to  this  department.  This  should  be  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  yard,  or  place  of  milking,  but  no 
further  than  is  necessary  to  be  removed  from  all  impur- 
ities in  the  air  arising  from  it,  and  from  all  low,  damp 
places,  subject  to  disagreeable  exhalations.  This  is  of 
the  utmost  importance.  It  should  be  well  ventilated, 
and  kept  constantly  clean  and  sweet,  by  the  use  of  pure 
water ;  and  especially,  if  milk  is  spilled,  it  should  be 
washed  up  immediately,  with  fresh  water.  No  matter  if 
it  is  but  a  single  drop;  if  allowed  to  soak  into  the  floor 
and  sour,  it  cannot  easily  be  removed,  and  it  is  sufficient 
to  taint  the  air  and  the  milk  in  the  room,  though  it  may 
not  be  perceptible  to  the  senses. 

In  smaller  dairies,  economy  dictates  the  use  of  a  room 
in  the  house  ;  and  this,  in  warm  climates,  should  be  on 
the  north  side,  and  used  exclusively  for  this  purpose. 
I  have  known  many  to  use  a  room  in  the  cellar  as  a 
milk-room ;  but  very  few  cellars  are  at  all  suitable. 
Most  are  filled  with  a  great  variety  of  articles  which 
never  fail  to  infect  the  air. 

But,  if  a  house-cellar  is  so  built  as  to  make  it  a  suita- 
19* 


222 


PURE    AIR.  —  THE    MILK-STAND 


ble  place  to  set  the  milk,  as  where  a  large  dry  and  airy 
room,  sufficiently  isolated  from  the  rest,  can  be  used,  a 
greater  uniformity  of  temperature  can  usually  be  se- 
cured than  on  the  floor  above.  The  room,  in  this  case, 
should  have  a  gravel  or  loamy  bottom,  uncemented,  but 
dry  and  porous.  The  soil  is  a  powerful  absorbent  of 
the  noxious  gases  which  are  apt  to  infect  the  atmos- 
phere near  the  bottom  of  the  cellar. 

Milk  should  never  be  set  on  the  bottom  of  a  cellar,  if 
the  object  is  to  raise  the  cream.  The  cream  will  rise  in 
time,  but  rarely  or  never  so  quickly  or  so  completely  as 
on  shelves  from  five  to  eight  feet  from  the  bottom, 
around  which  a  free  circulation  of  pure  air  can  be  had 
from  the  latticed  "windows.  It  is,  perhaps,  safe  to  say 
that  as  great  an  amount  of  better  cream  will  rise  from 
Hie  same  milk  in  twelve  hours    on  suitable  shelves,  six 


Fig.  73.    Milk-stand. 

feet  from  the  bottom,  as  would  be  obtained  directly  on 
the  bottom  of  the  same  cellar  in  twenty-four  hours. 


THE    PANS. — THE    SKIMMER.  223 

One  of  the  most  convenient  forms  for  shelves  in  a 
dairy-room  designed  for  butter-making  is  represented 
in  Fig.  73,  made  of  light  and  seasoned  wood,  in  an  oc- 
tagonal form,  and  capable  of  holding  one  hundred  and 
seventy-six  pans  of  the  ordinary  form  and  size.  It  is  so 
simple  and  easily  constructed,  and  so  economizes  space, 
that  it  may  readily  be  adapted  to  other  and  smaller 
rooms  for  a  similar  purpose.  If  the  dairy-house  is  near 
a  spring  of  pure  and  running  water,  a  small  stream  can 
be  led  in  by  one  channel  and  taken  out  by  another,  and 
thus  keep  a  constant  circulation  under  the  milk-stand, 
which  may  be  so  constructed  as  to  turn  easily  on  the 
central  post,  so  as  often  to  save  many  footsteps. 

The  pans  designed  for  milk  are  generally  made  of  tin. 
That  is  found,  after  long  experience,  to  be,  on  the  whole, 
the  best  and  most  economical,  and  subject  to  fewer 
objections  than  most  other  materials.  Glazed  earthen 
ware  is  often  used,  the  chief  objection  to  it  being  its 
liability  to  break,  and  its  weight.  It  is  easily  kept 
clean,  however,  and  is  next  in  value  to  tin,  if  not,  indeed, 
equal  to  it.  A  tin  skimmer  is  commonly  used,  some- 
what in  the  form  of  the  bowl  of  a  spoon,  and  pierced 
with  holes,  to  remove  the  cream.  In  some  sections  of 
the  country,  a  large  white  clam-shell  is  very  commonly 
used  instead  of  a  skimmer  made  for  the  purpose,  the 
chief  objection  to  it  being  that  the  cream  is  not  quite 
so  carefully  separated  from  the  milk. 

A  mode  of  avoiding  the  necessity  of  skimming  has 
long  been  used  to  some  extent  in  England,  by  which 
the  milk  is  drawn  of!  through  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of 
the  pan.  This  plan  is  recommended  by  Unwerth,  a 
German  agriculturist,  who  proposes  a  pan  represented 
in  Fig.  74,  made  of  block  tin,  oblong  in  shape,  and  hav- 
ing the  inside  corners  carefully  rounded.  The  pan  is 
only  two  inches  in  depth,  and  is  made  large  enough  to 


224 


THE  SHALLOW  DEPTH  IN  THE  PAN 


hold  six  or  eight  quarts  of  milk  at  the  depth  of  one 
and  a  half  inches.     This  shallowness  greatly  facilitates 

b 


the  rapid  separation  of  the  cream,  especially  at  a  tem- 
perature somewhat  elevated.  A.  strainer  is  shown  in 
Pig.  75,  pierced  with  holes,  the  centre  half  an  inch 
lower  than  the  rim,  to  which  hooks  are  fixed  to  hold 
it  to  the  top  of  the  pan.     On  this  a  coarse  linen  cloth 


Fig.  75. 


Fig.  76. 


is  laid,  the  milk  being  strained  through  both  the  cloth 
and  the  strainer,  thus  serving  to  separate  all  foreign 
substances  in  a  thorough  manner. 

In  the  bottom  of  the  milk-pan,  near  one  end,  is  an 
opening,  a,  through  which  the  milk  is  drawn,  after  the 
cream  is  all  risen  or  separated  from  it,  by  raising  a 
brass  pin,  b.  The  opening  is  lined  with  brass,  and  is 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Fig.  76  represents 
the  tin  cylinder  magnified.  This  is  pierced,  to  the 
height  of  an  inch,  with  many  small  holes,  diminishing  in 
size  towards  the  top.     The  cream  is  all  risen  in  twenty 


CHURNING    BY    HORSE    POWER.  225 

four  hours.  The  pin  is  then  drawn  from  the  cylinder, 
and  the  milk  flows  out,  leaving  the  thick  cream,  which 
is  prevented  from  flowing  out  by  the  smallness  of  the 
holes  in  the  cylinder. 

With  the  form  of  pans  in  most  common  use  in  this 
country,  which  are  circular,  three  or  four  inches  deep, 
this  shallow  depth  of  milk  causes  a  little  more  trouble 
in  skimming ;  but,  if  the  principle  is  correct,  the  form 
and  depth  of  the  pan  will  be  easily  adapted  to  it, 

After  the  cream  is  removed,  it  is  put  into  stone  or 
earthen  jars,  and  kept  in  a  cool  place  till  a  sufficient 
quantity  is  accumulated  to  make  it  convenient  to  churn. 
If  a  sufficient  number  of  cows  is  kept,  it  is  far  better 
to  churn  every  clay ;  but  in  ordinary  circumstances 
that  may  be  oftener  than  is  practicable.  The  more 
frequently  the  better  ;  and  the  advantages  of  frequent 
churning  are  so  great  that  cream  should  never  be  kept 
longer  than  three  or  four  days,  where  it  is  possible  to 
churn  so  often. 

The  mode  of  churning  in  one  of  the  many  good 
dairies  in  Pennsylvania,  —  that  of  Mr.  J.  Comfort,  of 
Montgomery  county,— is  as  follows:  He  uses  a  large 
barrel-shaped  churn,  of  the  size  of  about  two  hogsheads, 
hung  on  journals  supported  by  a  framework  in  an  adjoin- 
in^  building.  It  is  worked  by  machinery  in  a  rotatory 
motion,  by  a  horse  travelling  around  in  a  circle.  The 
churning  commences  about  four  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing in  summer,  the  cream  being  poured  into  the  churn 
and  the  horse  started.  When  the  butter  has  come,  a 
part  of  the  butter-milk  is  removed  by  a  vent-hole  in  the 
churn.  Then,  without  beating  the  mass  together,  as  is 
usual,  a  portion  of  the  butter  and  its  butter-milk  is  taken 
out  by  the  spatula  and  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a  tub 
covered  with  fine  salt,  and  spread  out  equally  to  a 
proper  depth  ;  then  the  surface  of  this  butter  is  cov- 

15 


226 


FORMS     OF    THE    CHURN. 


ered  with  salt,  and  another  portion  of  butter  and 
butter-milk  taken  from  the  churn  and  spread  over  the 
salted  surface  in  the  same  manner,  and  salted  as  before, 
thus  making  a  succession  of  layers,  till  the  tub  is  full. 
The  whole  is  then  covered  with  a  white  cloth,  and 
allowed  to  stand  a  while.  A  part  of  this  butter,  say 
eight  or  ten  pounds,  is  then  taken  from  the  tub  and  laid 
on  a  marble  table  (Fig.  80),  grooved  around  the  edges, 
and  slightly  inclined,  with  a  place  in  the  groove  for  the 
butter-milk  and  whey  to  escape.  It  is  then  worked  by 
a  butter-worker  or  brake,  turning  on  a  swivel-joint, 
which  perfectly  and  completely  removes  the  butter-milk, 
and  flattens  out  the  butter  into  a  thin  mass  ;  then  the 
surface  is  wiped  by  a  cloth  laid  over  it,  and  the  working 
and  wiping  repeated  till  the  cloth  adheres  to  the  butter, 
which  indicates  that  the  butter  is  dry 
enough,  when  it  is  separated  into  pound 
lumps,  weighed  and  stamped,  ready  for 
market.  The  rest  of  the  butter  in  the 
tub  is  treated  in  the  same  way. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  method 
avoids  the  ordinary  washing  with  water, 
not  a  drop  of  water  being  used,  from 
beginning  to  the  end.  It  avoids  also 
the  working  by  hand,  which  in  warm 
weather  has  a  tendency  to  soften  the 
butter.  In  the  space  of  about  an  hour 
a  hundred  pounds  are  thus  made,  and  its 
beautiful  color  and  fragrance  preserved. 
If  it  happens  to  come  from  the  churn 
soft,  it  hardens  by  standing  a  little 
longer  in  the  brine. 

The  most  common  form  of  the  churn 
in  small  dairies  is  the  upright  or  dash- 
rig.  77.  churn,  Fig.  77 ;   but   many  other  forms 


MODE     OF    CHURNING 


227 


are  in  extensive  use,  each  possessing,  doubtless,  more 
or  less  merit  peculiar  to  itself.  The  cylinder  churn, 
q  Fig.     78,     is   very   simply 


constructed,  and  capable  of 
being  easily  cleaned.  Some 
prefer  the  thermometer 
churn,  with  a  convenient 
attachment  for  indicating 
the  temperature  of  the 
cream. 

As  already  stated,  there 
are  two  modes  of  practice 
with  regard  to  the  pro- 
cess of  churning,  each  of  which  has  its  advantages. 
The  milk  itself  may  be  churned,  or  it  may  be  set  in 
the  milk-room  for  the  cream  to   rise. 

But,  whichever  course  it  is  thought  best  to  adopt, 
whether  the  milk  or  cream  is  churned,  it  is  the  concus- 
sion, rather  than  the  motion,  which  serves  to  bring  the 
butter.  This  may  be  produced  in  the  simple  square  box 
as  well  as  by  the  dasher  churn  ;  and  it  is  the  opinion  of 
a  scientific  gentleman  with  whom  I  have  conversed  on 
the  subject,  that  the  perfect  square  is  the  best  form  of 
the  churn  ever  invented.  The  cream  or  milk  in  this 
churn  has  a  peculiar  compound  motion,  and  the  concus- 
sion on  the  corners  and  right-angled  sides  is  very  great, 
and  causes  the  butter  to  come  as  rapidly  as  it  is  judi- 
cious to  have  it.  This  churn  consists  of  a  simple  square 
box,  which  any  one  who  can  handle  a  saw  and  plane  can 
make,  hung  on  axles  turned  by  a  crank  somewhat  like 
the  barrel  churn.  No  dasher  is  required.  If  any  one 
is  inclined  to  doubt  the  superiority  of  this  form  over  all 
others,  he  can  easily  try  it  and  satisfy  himself.  It  costs 
but  little. 


228      CHURNING   MILK.  —  SQUARE   BOX   CHURN. 


Fig. 

This  churn,  shown  in  Fig.  79,  may  be  made  of  any  de- 
sirable size,  but  for  medium-sized  dairies  24  inches  each 
way,  inside,  is  large  enough  to  churn  from  40  to  60  lbs. 
of  butter  in.  The  cream  is  put  in  through  a  circular 
opening,  about  seven  inches  in  diameter,  having  a  cover 
made  to  fit  tight,  and  clamped  on  with  screws.  A  small 
hole  is  made  in  one  corner  at  the  end,  to  ventilate  the 
churn  occasionally  when  in  use,  stopped  by  a  plug,  and 
through  which  the  buttermilk  is  run  off  when  the  butter 
"has  come."  The  end  of  the  churn  and  the  motion  of 
the  cream  are  shown  in  Fig.  79  a,  and  the  form  of  the 
butter  after  the  buttermilk  is  worked  out  in  Fig.  79  b. 

Mr.  N.  B.  Chamberlain,  of  Westboro',  Mass.,  who  has 
this  churn  in  constant  use,  says  :  "We  churned  once  a 
week  during  the  ivinter,  the  butter  varying  from  fifteen  to 
thirty-five  pounds,  the  time  from  seven  to  fourteen  min 
utes.  The  drawing  out  of  the  buttermilk  and  the  work 
ing  in  the  salt  averaged  only  five  minutes."     The  churn 


CHURNING   THE   CREAM.  229 


Fig.  79  a.  Fig.  79  ft. 

ing  usually  began  at  7  J  o'clock,  and  the  butter  was,  with 
one  exception,  sent  to  market  before  10  o'clock. 

It  will  be  seen  that  two  forces  combine  to  produce  the 
desired  result.  As  the  churn  revolves,  the  cream  re- 
ceives all  the  agitation  that  is  ever  given  to  it  by  the 
barrel  or  cylindrical  churn.  But,  in  addition,  the  cream 
is  dashed  violently  against  the  sides  of  the  churn.  This 
dashing  motion  is  the  secret  of  the  prompt  results  se- 
cured by  the  use  of  the  square  churn.  Moreover,  the 
buttermilk  can  be  drawn  out,  and  the  butter  not  only 
"  gathered,"  but  consolidated,  and  the  buttermilk  thor- 
oughly beaten  out.  If  salt  is  added  after  drawing  out 
the  buttermilk,  it  is  thoroughly  worked  in  in  five  min- 
utes by  giving  the  churn  a  half  motion. 

When  the  working  of  this  churn  is  well  understood,  it 
will  be  seen  that  another  great  advantage  is  in  churning 
all  the  cream.  It  car  not  adhere  to  the  sides  and  cause 
streaky  butter. 

Mr.  William  S.  Lincoln,  of  Worcester,  who  received 
the  first  premium  from  the  Massachusetts  Society  for  Pro- 
moting Agriculture,  speaks  as  follows  in  regard  to  the  use 
of  the  butter-worker :  — 

"  In  '  working '  butter  we  use  a  table  over  which  a 
fluted  roller  is  made  to  pass  (Fig.  80),  rolling  out  the 
20 


230  PHILADELPHIA   BUTTER. 

butter  into  a  thin  sheet,  and  completely  and  entirely  de- 
priving it  of  buttermilk. 

"  From  many  years'  experience,  the  observation  is 
warranted,  that  by  no  other  process  of  manufacture 
can  the  butter-milk  be  so  completely  extracted.  I  am 
aware  of  the  truth  of  the  objection  made  that  the 
shrinkage  occasioned  by  its  use  is  too  great :  yet  there 
is,  in  fact,  a  difference  in  the  worth  of  the  butter  made 
upon  it,  over  that  manufactured  in  the  ordinary  way, 
quite  equal  to  the  loss  in  weight  occasioned  by  it." 

The  high  reputation  of  Philadelphia  butter  being  so 
well  known,  I  was  desirous  of  ascertaining  the  opinions 
of  practical  men  as  to  what  this  was  due, — whether  to 
any  peculiar  richness  of  the  pasturage,  or  to  the  careful 
mode  of  manufacture.  In  reply  to  my  inquiries,  I  have 
received  satisfactory  statements  from  several  sources, 
and  among  them  the  following  communication  from  one 
of  the  most  successful  of  the  butter-makers  who  supply 
that  market.  "  The  high  reputation  of  Philadelphia  but- 
ter," he  says,  "is  owing  to  the  manner  of  its  manufacture, 
though  I  would  not  say  that  the  sweet-scented  vernal 
and  other  natural  grasses  do  not  add  to  the  fine  quality 
of  well-made  butter. 

"In  proof  of  what  I  say,  I  would  refer  to  the  experi- 
ence of  my  brother,  who  is  the  owner  of  two  farms. 
His  tenant,  an  excellent  butter-maker,  lived  on  one 
farm,  and  made  a  very  fine  article,  which  brought  the 
highest  prices.  He  moved  to  the  other  farm,  where 
the  former  tenant  had  never  made  good  butter,  and  had 
ascribed  his  want  of  success  to  the  spring-house.  On 
this  farm  he  succeeded  in  establishing  a  higher  repu- 
tation than  he  ever  had  before.  The  tenant  who  fol- 
lowed him  on  the  first  farm  never  succeeded  in  gaining 
a  reputation  for  good  butter,  his  inability  arising  from 
his  ignorance  of  the  proper  mode  of  manufacture,  and 


MODE    OF    MAKING.  231 

bis  -unwillingness    to  improve    by   the    experience   of 
others. 

"  Only  a  part  of  the  information  as  to  the  best  mode 
of  manufacture  can  be  given,  so  much  depends  on  the 
judgment  and  experience  of  the  operator.  The  first 
thing  required  is  to  provide  a  suitable  place.  This 
should  be,  for  the  summer  months,  a  well-ventilated 
house,  over  a  good  spring  of  water.  The  second 
requisite  will  be  proper  vessels  to  hold  the  milk  and 
cream,  and  for  churning.  A  table  is  needed  which  shall 
not  be  used  for  any  other  purpose  than  for  working  and 
printing  the  butter  on.  I  have  always  used  a  lever  in 
connection  with  the  table  (Fig.  80).  A  large  sponge, 
with  a  linen  cloth  to  cover  it,  with  which  the  milk  can  be 
removed  from  the  butter,  is  another  important  article ; 
and  then  a  skimmer,  either  of  wood  or  tin,  or  both,  as 
may  be  necessary  in  the  different  states  of  the  milk ;  a 
thermometer,  and  a  boiler  convenient  for  heating  water 
for  cleansing  the  vessels.  No  person  can  expect  to 
make  good  butter  without  the  greatest  attention  to  the 
cleanliness  of  the  vessels  used  for  the  milk  and  cream, 
and  care  in  exposing  them  to  the  sun  and  air. 

"  After  the  milk  has  been  brought  from  the  yard  or 
stable,  strain  it  immediately  into  the  pans,  in  which  has 
been  put  a  little  sour  milk  from  which  the  cream  has 
been  removed,  the  quantity  varying  from  a  tablespoon- 
ful  to  half  a  common  teacupful,  according  to  the  state 
of  the  weather.  In  very  warm  weather  the  smaller 
quantity  is  sufficient.  But  the  rule  for  warm  weather 
will  not  always  hold  good ;  for,  from  the  electrical  state 
of  the  atmosphere,  the  milk  may  sour  either  too  slow  or 
too  fast. 

"  The  pans  containing  the  milk  should  then  be  set  into 
the  water,  if  the  weather  be  hot:  and  here  is  a  point  where 
the  operator  should  exercise  his  or  her  judgment ;  for 


232  USE    OF    THE    SPONGE. 

even  in  warm  weather  it  may  be  necessary  to  draw  off 
the  water  from  the  milk,  if  the  spring  be  cold.  The  milk 
should  remain  there,  under  no  circumstances,  longer 
than  the  fourth  meal,  or  forty-eight  hours ;  but  thirty- 
six  hours  is  much  to  be  preferred,  if  the  milk  has 
become  thick,  or  the  cream  sufficiently  raised,  when  it 
should  be  taken  off  carefully,  so  as  not  to  take  any 
sour  milk  with  it,  and  put  in  the  cream-pot.  When  the 
cream-pot  is  full,  sprinkle  a  small  handful  of  fine  salt 
over  the  top  of  the  cream,  and  let  it  remain.  Our 
custom  has  been,  when  making  butter  but  once  a  week, 
to  pour  the  cream  into  a  clean  vessel  at  the  end  of 
three  days,  keeping  back  any  milk  that  might  have  been 
taken  up  with  the  cream,  which  is  found  at  the  bottom 
of  the  jar. 

"I  would  mention  that  it  is  essential,  in  making  a  fine 
article,  to  keep  the  cream  clear  of  milk.  The  next  ope- 
ration will  be  preparatory  to  churning,  by  straining  the 
cream,  and  reducing  the  temperature  of  the  churn  by 
the  use  of  the  cold  spring-water.  The  operation  of 
churning  should  neither  be  protracted  nor  hastened  too 
much.  After  the  butter  has  made  its  appearance  of  the 
size  of  a  small  pea,  draw  off  the  milk,  and  throw  in  a 
small  amount  of  cold  water,  and  gather  it.  After  the 
butter  has  been  taken  from  the  churn,  it  is  placed  upon 
the  table,  worked  over  by  the  lever,  and  salted ;  then 
worked  again  with  the  lever,  in  connection  with  the 
sponge  and  cloth,  a  pan  of  cold  water  being  at  hand, 
with  a  piece  of  ice  in  it  in  summer,  into  which  you 
throw  the  cloth  and  sponge  frequently,  and  wring  out 
dry  before  again  using  it.  These,  as  well  as  every 
other  article  which  will  come  into  contact  with  the 
butter,  must  be  scalded,  and  afterward,  as  well  as  the 
hands,  placed  in  cold  water.  I  would  here  add  that  the 
use  of  the  sponge  is  one  of  the  important  points  in  mak 


THE    WINTER    DAIRY.  233 

ing  butter  to  keep  well ;  for  by  it  you  can  remove 
almost  every  particle  of  butter-milk,  which  is  the  great 
agent  in  the  destruction  of  its  sweetness  and  solidity. 
For  the  winter  dairy  a  room  in  which  is  placed  a  stove 
should  be  provided,  which  can  be  made  warm,  and  also 
well  ventilated.  I  prefer  the  use  of  coal,  on  account  of 
keeping  the  fire  through  the  night.  My  dairy-room  is 
adjoining  the  spring-house,  and  connects  with  it,  which 
I  consider  important.  This  room  should  be  used  for 
no  other  purpose,  as  cream  and  butter  are  the  greatest 
absorbents  of  effluvia  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  I 
have  known  good  butter  to  be  spoiled  by  being  placed 
over  night  in  a  close  closet. 

"  The  thermometer  should  always  accompany  the 
winter  dairy.  There  is  one  thing  very  important  in 
the  winter  dairy,  which,  perhaps,  I  should  have  placed 
first,  and  that  is  the  food  of  the  cows;  for,  without 
something  else  than  hay,  you  will  not  make  very  fine 
butter.  Mill-feed  and  corn-meal  I  consider  about  the 
best  for  yield  and  quality,  although  there  are  many 
other  articles  of  food  which  will  be  useful,  and  con- 
tribute to  the  appetite  and  health  of  the  cattle. 

"  The  process  for  the  winter  dairy  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  summer,  with  the  exception  of  the  regulation  as 
to  the  temperature  of  room,  etc.,  which  is  as  follows : 

"  Particular  care  should  be  taken  not  to  let  the  milk 
get  cold  before  placing  it  in  the  dairy-room;  for,  should 
it  be  completely  chilled,  the  cream  will  not  rise  well. 
Add  about  a  gill  of  warm  water  to  the  sour  milk  for 
each  pan,  before  straining  into  it,  which  will  greatly 
facilitate  the  rising  of  the  cream.  Keep  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  room  as  near  fifty-eight  degrees,  Fahrenheit, 
as  possible,  and  guard  against  the  air  being  dry  by 
having  a  small  vessel  of  water  upon  the  stove,  or  else 
a  dry  coat  will  form  on  the  surface  of  the  cream.  The 
20* 


234  THE    GREAT    SECRET. 

cream  should  be  kept  in  a  colder  place  than  the  dairy- 
room  until  the  night  before  churning,  when  it  might  be 
placed  in  the  warm  room,  so  that  its  temperature  shall 
be  about  58°. 

"The  churn  may  be  prepared  by  scalding  it,  and  then 
reduced  to  the  same  temperature  as  the  cream  by  cold 
water,  using  the  thermometer  as  a  test. 

"  This  regulation  of  temperature  is  of  the  greatest 
importance :  for,  should  it  be  too  low,  you  will  be  a 
long  time  churning,  and  have  poor,  tasteless  butter ;  if 
too  high,  the  butter  will  be  soft  and  white." 

What  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  above  statement 
is  the  use  of  the  sponge,  and  the  thorough  and  complete 
removal  of  all  the  butter-milk.  Here  is  probably  the 
secret  of  success,  after  all.  I  have  given  the  statement 
in  full,  notwithstanding  its  length,  on  account  of  the 
well-known  excellence  of  the  butter  produced  by  the 
process,  as  well  as  for  the  suggestions  with  regard  to 
the  dairy-rooms,  and  not  because  I  can  recommend  all 
its  details  for  the  imitation  of  others.  The  use  of  sour 
milk  in  the  pans  is  based,  I  suppose,  on  the  idea  that 
the  cream  does  not  begin  to  rise  till  acidity  commences 
in  the  milk, — an  idea  which  was  once  pretty  generally 
entertained  ;  but  the  process  of  souring  undoubtedly 
commences,  though  imperceptible  to  the  senses,  very 
soon  after  the  milk  comes  to  rest  in  the  pan.  At  any 
rate,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  separation  of  the  butter 
from  the  other  substances  commences  at  once,  and 
without  the  addition  of  any  foreign  substance  to  the 
milk. 

Nor  do  I  believe  there  is  any  necessity  for  the  milk 
to  stand  over  twenty-four  hours  in  any  case ;  for  I  have 
no  doubt  that  all  the  best  of  the  cream  rises  within  the 
first  twelve  hours,  under  favorable  circumstances,  and 
I  am  inclined  to  think  that  whatever  is  added  to  the 


THE    TIME    TO    RISE. 


235 


quantity  of  cream  after  twenty-four  hours,  detracts 
from  the  quality  of  the  butter  to  an  extent  which  more 
than  counterbalances  the  whole  of  the  quantity. 

Many  good  dairy-women  make  an  exceedingly  fine 
article,'  in  spite  of  the  defects  of  some  parts  of  the  pro- 
cess of  manufacture.  This  does  not  show  that  they 
would  not  make  still  better  butter  if  they  remedied 
these  defects. 

The  more  we  can  retard  the  development  of  acidity 
in  the  milk,  within  certain  limits,  the  more  cream  may 
we  expect  to  get ;  and  hence  some  use  artificial  means 
for  this  purpose,  mixing  in  the  milk  a  little  crystallized 
soda,  dissolved  in  twice  its  volume  of  water,  which 
corrects  the  acidity  as  soon  as  it  forms.  It  is  a  perfectly 
harmless  addition,  and  increases  the  product  of  the 
butter,  and  improves  its  quality.  But  under  ordinarily 
favorable  circumstances,  from  twelve  to  eighteen  hours 
will  be  sufficient  to  raise  all  the  cream  in  summer,  and 
from  twenty  to  thirty  hours  in  winter. 


Fig.  80.    Butter-worker. 

The    butter-worker,    Fig.  80,   with    its   marble   top, 
used  by  the  writer  of  the  statement  above,  is  an  im- 


236 


CEEAM    IN    A    WELL 


Fig.  81. 


portant  addition  to  the  implements   of  the  dairy.     It 

effects  the  complete 
removal  of  the  butter- 
milk,  without  the  ne- 
cessity of  bringing  the 
hands  in  contact  with 
it.  Anotherformofthe 
lever  butter-worker  is 
seen  in  Fig.  81. 
To  keep  the  cream  properly  after  it  is  placed  away 
in  pots  or  jars,  it  should  stand  in  a  cool  place,  and 
whenever  additions  of  fresh  cream  are  made,  they 
should  be  stirred  in.  Many  keep  the  cream,  as  well  as 
the  butter,  in  the  well,  in  hot  weather.  This  is  the 
practice  of  Mr.  Horsfall,  whose  experiments  have  been 
alluded  to.  Finding  his  butter  inclined  to  be  soft,  he 
lowered  a  thermometer  twenty-eight  feet  into  the  well, 
and  found  it  indicated  43°,  the  temperature  of  the  sur- 
face being  70°.  He  then  let  down  the  butter,  and  found 
it  somewhat  improved ;  and  soon  after  began  to  lower 
down  the  cream,  by  means  of  a  movable  windlass  and  a 
rope,  the  cream-jar  being  placed-  in  a  basket  hung  on 
the  rope.  The  cream  was  let  down  on  the  evening 
previous  to  churning,  and  drawn  up  in  the  morning  and 
immediately  churned.  The  time  of  churning  the  cream 
at  this  temperature  would  be  as  long  as  in  winter,  and 
the  butter  was  found  to  have  the  same  consistency. 

The  same  object  is  effected  in  this  country  by  the  use 
of  ice  in  many  sections  ;  but,  if  the  butter  remains  too 
long  on  ice,  or  in  an  ice-house,  it  is  apt  to  become 
bleached,  and  lose  its  natural  and  delicate  straw  color. 

The  time  of  churning  is  by  no  means  an  unimportant 
matter.  Various  contrivances  have  been  made  to  short- 
en this  operation  ;  but  the  opinions  of  the  best  and 
most  successful  dairymen  concur  that  it  cannot  be  too 


MODE     OF    PACKING.  237 

much  hastened  without  injuring  the  fine  quality  and 
consistency  of  the  butter.  The  time  required  depends 
much  on  the  temperature  of  the  cream;  and  this  can  be 
regulated  at  convenience,  as  indicated  above. 

The  temperature  of  the  dairy-room  should  be  as 
uniform  as  possible.  The  practice  of  the  best  and  most 
successful  dairymen  differs  in  respect  to  the  degree  to 
which  it  should  be  kept ;  but  the  range  is  from  52°  to 
62°  Fahr.,  and  I  am  inclined  to  think  from  58°  to  60°  the 
best.  At  60°,  with  a  current  of  fresh,  pure  air  passing 
over  it,  the  cream  will  rise  very  rapidly  and  abundantly. 

The  greatest  density  of  milk  is  at  about  41°,  and 
cream  rises  with  great  difficulty  and  slowness  as  the 
temperature  falls  below  50°  towards  that  point. 

A  practical  butter  dealer  of  New  York  gives  the  fol- 
lowing as  the  best  mode  of  packing  butter,  or  putting 
it  up  for  a  distant  market.  The  greatest  care,  he  says, 
should  be  taken  to  free  the  butter  entirely  from  milk, 
by  working  it  and  washing  it  after  churning  at  a  tem- 
perature so  low  as  to  prevent  it  from  losing  its  granular 
character  and  becoming  greasy.  The  character  of  the 
product  depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the  temperature 
of  churning  and  working,  which  should  be  between 
sixty  and  seventy  degrees  Fahr.  If  free  from  milk, 
eight  ounces  of  Ashton  salt  is  sufficient  for  ten  pounds. 
Western  salt  should  never  be  used,  as  it  injures  the 
flavor.  While  packing,  the  contents  of  the  firkin  should 
be  kept  from  the  air  by  being  covered  with  saturated 
brine.  No  undissolved  salt  should  be  put  in  the  bottom 
of  the  firkin. 

Goshen  butter  is  reputed  best,  though  much  is  put  up 
in  imitation  of  it,  and  sold  at  the  same  price.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  firkins  neat  and  clean. 
They  should  be  of  white  oak,  with  hickory  hoops,  and 
should  hold  about  eighty  pounds.     Wood  excludes  air 


238  FIRKINS. —  LUMP    BUTTER. 

better  than  stone,  and  consequently  keeps  butter  bet- 
ter.    Tubs  are  better  than  pots. 

Western  butter  comes  in  coarse,  ugly  packages;  even 
flour  and  pork  barrels  are  sometimes  used.  Much  of  it 
must  be  worked  over  and  re-packed  here  before  it  will 
sell.  It  generally  contains  a  good  deal  of  milk,  and  if 
not  re-worked  soon  becomes  rancid.  Improper  pack- 
ing, in  kegs  too  large  and  soiled  on  the  outside,  makes  at 
least  three  cents  a  pound  difference.  Whatever  the 
size  of  the  firkin,  it  must  be  perfectly  tight  and  quite 
full  of  butter,  so  that  when  opened  the  brine,  though 
present,  will  not  be  found  on  the  top. 

Until  the  middle  of  May,  dairymen  should  pack  in 
quarter  firkins  or  tubs,  with  white  oak  covers,  and  send 
directly  to  market  as  fresh  butter.  From  this  time  until 
the  fall  frost  there  is  but  little  change  in  color  and 
flavor  with  the  same  dairy,  and  it  may  be  packed  in 
whole  firkins,  and  kept  in  a  cool  place.  The  fall  butter 
should  also  be  packed  separately  in  tubs. 

To  prepare  new  butter-boxes  for  use  in  the  shortest 
time,  dissolve  common,  or  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  boiling 
water,  as  much  as  the  water  will  dissolve,  and  water 
enough  to  fill  the  boxes ;  about  a  pound  of  soda  will  be 
required  to  be  put  into  a  thirty-two  pound  box,  and  the 
water  should  be  poured  upon  it.  Let  it  stand  over 
night,  and  the  box  may  be  safely  used  next  day.  This 
mode  is  cheap  and  expeditious,  and,  if  adopted,  would 
often  save  great  losses.     Potash  has  a  like  effect. 

As  already  seen,  in  the  statements  of  practical  dairy 
men.  the  greatest  care  is  required  in  the  salting  or  sea- 
soning. Over-salted  butter  is  not  only  less  palatable  to 
the  taste,  but  less  healthy  than  fresh,  sweet  butter.  The 
same  degree  of  care  is  needed  with  respect  to  the  box 
in  which  it  is  packed.  I  have  often  seen  the  best  and 
richest-flavored  butter  spoilt  by  sending  it  to  the  exhibi 


A    NEW    PROCESS.  239 

tion  or  to  market  in  new  and  improper  boxes.  A  new 
pine-wood  box  should  always  be  avoided. 

Butter  that  has  been  thoroughly  worked,  and  per- 
fectly freed  from  butter-milk,  is  of  a  firm  and  waxy  con- 
sistence,  so  as  scarcely  to  dim  the  polish  of  the  blade 
of  a  knife  thrust  into  it,  leaving  upon  it  only  a  slight 
dew  as  it  is  withdrawn.  If  it  is  soft  in  texture,  and 
leaves  greasy  streaks  of  butter-milk  upon  the  knife  that 
cuts  it,  or  upon  the  cut  surface  after  the  blade  is  with- 
drawn, it  shows  an  imperfect  and  defective  process  of 
manufacture,  and  is  of  poor  quality,  and  will  be  liable 
to  become  rancid. 

An  exceedingly  delicate  and  fine-flavored  butter  may 
be  made  by  wrapping  the  cream  in  a  napkin  or  clean 
cloth,  and  burying  it,  a  foot  deep  or  more,  in  the  earth, 
from  twelve  to  twenty  hours.  This  experiment  I  have 
repeatedly  tried  with  complete  success,  and  have  never 
tasted  butter  superior  to  that  produced  by  this  method. 
It  requires  to  be  salted  to  the  taste  as  much  as  butter 
made  by  any  other  process.  A  tenacious  subsoil  loam 
would  seem  to  be  best.  After  putting  the  cream  into 
a  clean  cloth,  the  whole  should  be  surrounded  by  a 
coarse  towel.  The  butter  thus  produced  is  white 
instead  of  yellow  or  straw-color. 

Butter  has  been  analyzed  by  Prof.  Way,  with  the  fol- 
lowing result: 

Pure  fat.  or  oil, 82.70 

Caseine,  or  curd, 2.45 

^Yater,  with  a  little  salt, 14.85  =  100 

The  fat  or  oil  peculiar  to  butter  is  in  winter  more 
solid  than  in  summer,  and  known  as  margarine  fat, 
while  that  of  summer  is  known  as  liquid  or  oleine  fat. 
The  proportions  in  which  these  are  found  in  ordinary 


240  THE    FAT     OF     BUTTER. — ICE. 

butter  have  been  stated  by  Prof.  Thomson,  as  follows: 

Summer.        'Winter. 

Solid  or  margarine  fat, 40  65 

Liquid  or  oleine  fat, 60  35 

100  100 

Winter  butter  appears  to  be  rich  and  fine  in  propor- 
tion as  the  oleine  fat  increases.  The  proportion  is 
undoubtedly  dependent  on  the  food. 

A  more  general  attention  to  the  details  of  butter- 
making,  and  to  the  best  modes  of  preserving  its  good 
qualities,  would  add  many  thousands  of  dollars  to  the 
aggregate  profits  of  our  American  dairies. 

In  the  management  of  the  dairy,  an  ice-house  and  a 
good  quantity  of  ice  for  summer  use  are  not  only  very 
convenient  for  regulating  the  temperature  of  the  dairy- 
room,  and  for  keeping  butter  at  the  proper  consistence, 
and  preserving  it, but  are  also  profitable  in  other  respects. 
And  now,  when  ice-houses  are  so  easily  constructed,  and 
ice  is  so  readily  procured,  no  well-ordered  dairy  should 
be  without  a  liberal  supply  of  it.  It  is  housed  at  a  time 
when  other  farm-work  is  not  pressing,  and  ponds  are  so 
distributed  over  the  country  that  it  may  be  generally  pro- 
cured without  difficulty;  but  where  ponds  or  streams  are 
at  too  great  a  distance  from  the  dairy-house,  an  artificial 
pond  can  be  easily  made,  by  damming  up  the  outlet  of 
some  spring  in  the  neighborhood.  Where  this  is  done, 
the  utmost  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  water  per- 
fectly clean  when  the  ice  is  forming.  The  ice-house 
should  be  above  ground,  and  in  a  dry,  airy  place.  Tliu 
top  of  a  dry  knoll  is  better  than  a  low,  damp  shade. 
The  ice  may  be  packed  in  tan,  sawdust,  shavings,  or 
other  non-conductors,  and  when  wanted  for  use  it 
should  be  taken  off  the  top. 


CHAPTER     IX. 

THE     CHEESE-DAIRY. 

*•  Streams  of  new  milk  through  flowing  coolers  stray, 
And  snow-white  curds  abound,  and  wholesome  whey." 

Milk,  if  allowed  to  become  sour,  will  eventually 
curdle,  when  the  whey  is  easily  separated:  and  this 
simple  mode  was  probably  the  universal  method  of 
making  cheese  in  ancient  times.  Cheese,  as  already 
explained,  is  made  from  caseine,  an  ingredient  of  milk 
held  in  solution  by  means  of  an  alkali,  which  it  re- 
quires the  presence  of  an  acid  to  neutralize.  This,  in 
modern  manufacture,  is  artificially  added  to  form  the 
curd ;  but  the  acidity  of  milk,  after  standing,  acts  in 
the  same  manner  to  produce  coagulation.  This  is  due 
to  the  change  of  the  milk-sugar  into  lactic  acid. 

Cheese  has  been  made  and  used  as  an  article  of  food 
from  a  very  early  date.  It  was  well  known  to  the  early 
Jewish  patriarchs,  and  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
earliest  Hebrew  records.  "  Hast  thou  not  poured  me 
out  as  milk,  and  curdled  me  like  cheese?"  says  Job  ;  and 
David  was  sent  to  "  carry  ten  cheeses  to  the  captain  of 
their  thousand  in  the  camp."  Most  of  the  ancient 
nations,  indeed,  barbarous  as  well  as  civilized,  made  it 
a  prominent  article  of  food.  But  cheese,  as  made  by 
the  ancients,  was  found  to  be  hard  and  brittle,  and  not 
well  flavored,  and  means  were  devised  to  produce  the 
same  effect  while  the  milk  still  remained  sweet.  It  was 
21  16 


242  CHEESE. ITS    RICHNESS. 

observed  that  acids  of  various  kinds  would  answer,  and 
vinegar  was  used;  and  cream  of  tartar,  muriatic  acid,  and 
sour  milk,  added  to  sweet,  produced  a  rapid  coagulation. 
In  Sweden,  Norway,  and  other  countries,  a  handful  of  the 
plant  known  as  butterwort (Pinguicula  vulgaris)is  some- 
times mixed  with  the  food  of  the  cow,  to  cause  the  milk 
to  coagulate  readily.  A  few  hours  after  milking,  the  curd 
is  formed  without  the  addition  of  an  acid.  Milk  taken 
into  the  stomach  of  the  calf  was  found  to  curdle' rapidly, 
even  while  sweet ;  and  hence  the  use  of  rennet,  which  is 
simply  the  stomach  of  the  calf,  prepared  by  washing, 
salting,  and  drying,  for  preservation.  This  acts  the 
most  surely,  and,  if  properly  prepared  and  preserved,  is 
the  least  objectionable,  of  any  article  now  known  ;  and 
is,  in  fact,  the  natural  mode  of  curdling  the  milk  as  it 
enters  the  stomach,  preparatory  to  the  process  of  diges- 
tion. Besides  this,  it  is  generally  the  cheapest  and 
most  available  for  the  farmer. 

The  richness  of  cheese  depends  very  much  upon  the 
amount  of  butter  or  oily  matter  it  contains.  It  may  be 
made  entirely  of  cream,  or  from  whole  or  unskimmed 
milk,  to  which  the  cream  of  other  milk  is  added,  or 
from  milk  from  which  a  part  of  its  cream  has  been 
taken,  or  from  ordinary  skim-milk,  or  from  milk  that 
has  been  skimmed  three  or  four  times,  so  as  to  remove 
nearly  every  particle  of  cream,  or  from  butter-milk. 
The  acid  used  in  curdling  milk  acts  upon  the  caseine 
alone,  and  not  upon  the  butter  particles,  which  are 
imbedded  in  the  curd  as  it  hardens,  and  thus  increase 
its  richness  and  flavor  without  adding  to  its  con- 
sistency, which  is  due  to  the  caseine. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  cheese  made  entirely  of 
cream  cannot  have  the  firmness  and  consistence  of 
ordinary  cheese.  It  is  only  made  for  immediate  use, 
and  cannot  be  long  kept.     It  is,  in  fact,  little  more  than 


PROCESS     OF    MAKING.  243 

thick,  dried,  sweet  cream,  from  which  all  the  milk  has 
been  pressed.  On  the  other  hand,  skim-milk  cheese 
has  the  opposite  fault  of  being  too  hard  and  tough,  and 
destitute  of  flavor  and  richness.  The  best  quality  of 
cheese  is  made  from  full  milk,  or  from  milk  to  which 
some  extra  cream  is  added,  as  in  the  English  Stilton, 
renowned  for  its  richness  and  flavor.  The  Gloucester, 
Cheshire,  Cheddar,  Dunlop,  and  the  Dutch  Gouda,  are 
made  of  whole  milk,  as  are  the  best  qualities  made  in 
this  country. 

The  process  of  making  cheese  is  both  chemical  and 
mechanical.  The  heating  of  the  milk  at  the  time  of 
adding  the  acid  or  rennet  hastens  the  chemical  action, 
and  facilitates  the  separation  of  the  whey ;  at  the  same 
time  great  nicety  is  required,  for,  if  over-heated,  the  oily 
particles  will  run  off  with  the  whey.  On  the  complete 
separation  of  the  whey  from  the  curd,  and  the  amount 
of  butter  particles  retained  in  the  latter,  the  taste  or 
flavor  and  keeping  qualities  of  the  cheese  depend.  If 
properly  made,  the  taste  improves  by  keeping,  but  the 
chemical  changes  effected  by  age  are  not  very  well 
understood. 

The  practical  process  of  manufacture  most  common 
in  the  best  dairies  of  this  country  will  appear  in  the  fol- 
lowing statements  of  successful  competitors  at  agricul- 
tural exhibitions.  The  first  was  made,  by  request,  to 
the  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society,  and  appeared 
in  its  transactions,  by  A.  L.  Fish,  of  Herkimer  county, 
one  of  the  finest  dairy  regions  of  that  state.  The 
value  of  his  statement  is  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  his 
cows  averaged  seven  hundred  pounds  of  the  first 
quality  of  cheese  each  in  1844,  and  seven  hundred  and 
seventy-five  pounds  each  in  1845.  In  his  mode  of 
manufacture,  "  the  evening's  and  morning's  milk  is  com- 
monly used   to   make  one    cheese.     The   evening's   is 


244  AMERICAN    CHEESE. 

strained  into  a  tub  or  pans,  and  cooled  to  prevent 
souring.  The  proper  mode  of  cooling  is  to  strain  the 
milk  into  the  tin  tub  set  in  a  wooden  vat,  described  in 
the  dairy-house,  and  cool  by  filling  the  wooden  vat  with 
ice-water  from  the  ice-house,  or  ice  in  small  lumps,  and 
water  from  the  pump.  The  little  cream  that  rises  over 
night  is  taken  off  in  the  morning,  and  kept  till  the 
morning  and  evening  milk  are  put  together,  and  the 
cream  is  warmed  to  receive  the  rennet.  It  is  mixed 
with  about  twice  its  quantity  of  new  milk,  and  warm 
water  added  to  raise  its  temperature  to  ninety-eight 
degrees :  stir  it  till  perfectly  limpid,  put  in  rennet 
enough  to  curdle  the  milk  in  forty  minutes,  and  mix  it 
with  the  mass  of  milk  by  thorough  stirring;  the  milk 
having  been  previously  raised  to  eighty-eight  or  ninety 
degrees,  by  passing  steam  from  the  steam  generator  to 
the  water  in  the  wooden  vat.  In  case  no  double  vat  is 
to  be  had,  the  milk  may  be  safely  heated  to  the  right 
temperature,  by  setting  a  tin  pail  of  hot  water  into  the 
milk  in  the  tubs.  It  may  be  cooled  in  like  manner  by 
filling  the  pail  with  ice-water,  or  cold  spring-water 
where  ice  is  not  to  be  had.  It  is  not  safe  to  heat  milk 
in  a  kettle  exposed  directly  to  the  fire,  as  a  slight 
scorching  will  communicate  its  taint  to  the  whole 
cheese  and  spoil  it.  If  milk  is  curdled  below  eighty- 
four  degrees,  the  cream  is  more  liable  to  work  off  with 
the  whey.  An  extreme  of  heat  will  have  a  like  effect. 
The  curdling  heat  is  varied  with  the  temperature  of 
the  air,  or  the  liability  of  the  milk  to  cool  after  adding 
rennet.  The  thermometer  is  the  only  safe  guide  in 
determining  the  temperature ;  for,  if  the  dairyman 
depends  upon  the  sensation  of  the  hand,  a  great  liability 
to  error  will  render  the  operation  uncertain.  If,  for 
instance,  the  hands  have  previously  been  immersed  in 
cold  water,  the  milk  will  feel  warmer  than  it  really  is ; 


PRACTICAL     DETAILS.  245 

if,  on  the  contrary,  they  have  recently  been  in  warm 
water,  the  miik  will  feel  colder  than  it  really  is.  To 
satisfy  the  reader  how  much  this  circumstance  alone 
will  affect  the  sensation  of  the  hand,  let  him  immerse 
one  hand  in  warm  water,  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the 
other  in  a  vessel  of  cold  water,  for  a  few  moments ; 
then  pour  the  water  in  the  two  dishes  together,  and 
immerse  both  hands  in  the  mixture.  The  hand  that  was 
previously  in  the  warm  water  will  feel  cold,  and  the 
other  quite  warm,  showing  that  the  sense  of  feeling  is 
uot  a  test  of  temperature  worthy  of  being  relied  upon. 
A  fine  cloth  spread  over  the  tub  while  the  milk  is  curd- 
ling will  prevent  the  surface  from  being  cooled  by  cir- 
culation of  air.  No  jarring  of  the  milk,  by  walking 
upon  a  springy  floor,  or  otherwise,  should  be  allowed 
while  it  is  curdling,  as  it  will  prevent  a  perfect  cohesion 
of  the  particles. 

"  When  milk  is  curdled  so  as  to  appear  like  a  solid,  it 
is  divided  into  small  particles  to  aid  the  separation  of 
the  whey  from  the  curd.  This  is  often  too  speedily  done 
to  facilitate  the  work,  but  at  a  sacrifice  of  quality  and 
quantity.11 

To  effect  the  fine  division  of  the  curd  for  the  easy 
separation  of  the  whey,  Mr.  Fish  uses  a  wire  network, 
made  to  fit  into  the  tub,  the  meshes  of  fine  wire  being 
about  a  half-inch  square,  and  the  outer  rim  of  coarse 
and  stronger  material.  A  cheese-knife  is  also  used, 
about  half  as  long  as  the  diameter  of  the  tub,  and  firmly 
fastened  to  the  lower  end  of  a  long  screw  which  passes 
through  one  end  of  the  blade  as  it  lies  horizontally, 
leaving  the  blade  at  right  angles  with  the  screw,  which 
has  a  coarse  thread,  and  passes  through  a  piece  of 
wood  on  the  top  of  the  tub,  held  firm  by  notches  at  the 
ends  laid  on  the  edges  of  the  tub.  By  turning  a  crank; 
the  knife  passes  down  through  the  curd  in  revolutions 
21* 


246  HOW    TO    MAKE    SAGE    CHEESE. 

cutting  it  into  layers  of  the  thickness  of  the  threads  of 
the  screw. 

The  following  is  the  statement  of  Mrs.  Williams,  oi 
Windsor,  Massachusetts,  who  received  the  first  premium 
at  the  Franklin  County  Fair,  in  1857,  for  exceedingly 
rich,  fine,  and  delicately-flavored  cheeses  of  seventy-five 
pounds  each.  Her  method,  which  is  the  result  of  her 
own  experience  and  observation,  corresponds  almost 
exactly,  as  the  committee  remark,  with  the  English 
mode  of  making  the  famous  Cheddar  cheese,  which  is 
much  the  same  as  the  Cheshire.  Mrs.  Williams  says : 
u  Mv  cheese  is  made  from  one  day's  milk  of  twenty- 
nine  cows.  I  strain  the  night's  milk  into  a  tub,  skim  it 
in  the  morning,  and  melt  the  cream  in  the  morning's 
milk  :  I  warm  the  night's  milk,  so  that  with  the  morn- 
ing's milk,  when  mixed  together,  it  will  be  at  the  tem- 
perature of  ninety-six  degrees  ;  then  add  rennet  suffi- 
cient to  turn  it  in  thirty  minutes.  Let  it  stand  about  half 
or  three  quarters  of  an  hour;  then  cross  it  off  and  let  it 
stand  about  thirty  minutes,  working  upon  it  very  care- 
fully with  a  skimmer.  When  the  curd  begins  to  settle, 
dip  off  the  whey,  and  heat  it  up  and  pour  it  on  again  at 
the  temperature  of  one  hundred  and  two  degrees.  After 
draining  off  and  cutting  up,  add  a  teacup  of  salt  to  four- 
teen pounds. 

"The  process  of  making  sage  cheese  is  the  same  as  the 
other,  except  adding  the  juice  of  the  sage  in  a  small 
quantity  of  milk." 

Another  successful  competitor  in  the  same  state  says: 
"  We  usually  make  but  one  curd  in  a  day.  The  night's 
milk  is  strained  into  pans  till  morning,  when  the  cream 
that  will  have  risen  is  taken  off,  and  the  milk  warmed  to 
blood  heat,  when  the  cream  is  again  returned  to  the 
milk  and  thoroughly  mixed.  This  prevents  the  melt- 
ing of  the  cream  that  would  otherwise  run   off  with 


PRACTICAL    STATEMENT.  —  RENNET.  247 

the  whey.  The  whole  is  then  immediately  laded  into  a  tub 
with  the  morning's  milk,  and  set  for  the  cheese,  with 
rennet  sufficient  to  form  the  curd  in  about  thirty  min- 
utes ;  and  here  much  care  is  thought  to  be  necessary  in 
cutting  and  crossing  the  curd,  and  much  moderation  in 
dipping  and  draining  the  whey  from  it,  that  the  white 
whey  (so  called)  may  not  exude  from  it. 

"When  sufficiently  drained,  it  is  taken  and  cut  with  a 
sharp  knife  to  about  the  size  and  form  of  dice,  when  it 
is  salted  with  about  one  pound  of  fine  salt  to.  twenty- 
five  of  curd.  It  is  then  subjected  to  a  moderate  press- 
ure at  first,  gradually  increasing  it  for  two  days,  in  the 
mean  time  turning  it  twice  a  day,  and  substituting  dry 
cloths.  It  is  then  taken  from  the  press  and  dressed  all 
over  with  hot  melted  butter,  and  covered  with  thin  cot- 
ton cloth,  and  this  saturated  with  the  melted  butter. 
It  is  then  placed  upon  the  shelf,  and  turned  and  rubbed 
daily  with  the  dressing  until  ripe  for  use." 

One  of  the  most  important  processes  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  good  cheese  is  the  preparation  of  the  rennet. 
This  is  made  of  the  inner  lining  or  mucous  membrane 
of  the  stomach  of  the  young  sucking  calf,  sometimes 
called  the  bag  or  maw;  and  the  use  of  it  was  undoubt- 
edly suggested,  originally,  by  observing  the  complete 
and  rapid  coagulation  or  curdling  of  milk  in  the  stom- 
ach of  a  calf  newly  killed.  "  Coagulation  is  the  first  pro- 
cess of  digestion  in  the  fourth  stomach  of  the  calf.  There 
are  numerous  glands  scattered  in  and  about  the  stomach 
that  secrete  a  fluid  which  readily  and  almost  immedi- 
ately accomplishes  this  coagulation.  They  are  always 
full  of  it ;  even  after  the  animal  is  dead  they  remain 
filled  with  it ;  and  if  the  stomach  is  preserved  from 
putrefaction,  this  fluid  retains  its  coagulating  quality 
for  a  considerable  period;  therefore  dairy-women  usually 
take  care  of  the  maw  or  stomach  of  the  calf,  and  pre- 


248  RENNET    IN    THE    SCOTCH    DAIRIES. 

serve  it  by  salting  it,  and  then,  by  steeping  it,  or  por- 
tions of  it,  in  warm  water,  they  prepare  what  they  call 
a  rennet.  After  the  maw  has  been  salted  a  certain  time, 
it  may  be  taken  out  and  dried,  and  then  it  will  retain 
the  same  property  for  an  indefinite  period.  A  small 
piece  of  the  maw  thus  dried  is  steeped  over  night  in  a 
few  teaspoonfuls  of  warm  water,  and  this  water  will 
turn  the  milk  of  three  or  four  cows." 

It  is  important  that  rennet  enough  should  be  pre- 
pared at  once  for  the  whole  season,  in  order  to  secure 
as  great  a  uniformity  in  strength  as  possible.  The 
object  should  be  to  produce  a  prompt,  complete,  and 
firm  or  compact  coagulation  of  all  the  cheesy  matter. 

Mr.  Aiton,  in  his  admirable  treatise  on  the  Dairy  Hus- 
bandry of  Scotland,  gives  the  simple  method  of  prepar- 
ing the  rennet  in  the  dairy  districts,  as  follows  :  "  When 
the  stomach  or  bag  —  usually  termed  the  yirning  —  is 
taken  from  the  calf's  body,  its  contents  are  examined, 
and  if  any  straw  or  other  food  is  found  among  the 
curdled  milk,  such  impurity  is  carefully  removed ;  but 
all  the  curdled  milk  found  in  the  bag  is  carefully  pre- 
served, and  no  part  of  the  chyle  is  washed  out.  A 
considerable  quantity  of  salt  —  at  least  two  handfuls  — 
is  put  into  and  outside  the  bag,  which  is  then  rolled  up 
and  hung  near  a  fire  to  dry.  It  is  always  allowed  to 
hang  until  it  is  well  dried,  and  is  understood  to  be 
improved  by  hanging  a  year  or  longer  before  being 
infused. 

11  When  rennet  is  wanted,  the  yirning  with  its  contents 
is  cut  small,  and  put  into  a  jar  with  a  handful  or  two  of 
salt;  and  a  quantity  of  soft  water  that  has  been  boiled 
and  cooled  to  sixty-five  degrees,  or  of  new  whey  taken 
off  the  curd,  is  poured  into  it.  The  quantity  of  water 
or  whey  necessary  is  more  or  less,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  yirning:  if  it  is  that  of  a  new-dropped 


RENNET    IN    AMERICAN    DAIRIES.  249 

calf,  a  Scotch  chop  pin,  or  at  most  three  English  pints, 
will  be  enough ;  but  if  the  calf  has  been  fed  four  or 
five  weeks,  two  quarts  or  more  may  be  used :  the  yirn- 
ing  of  a  calf  four  weeks  old  yields  more  rennet  than 
that  of  one  twice  that  age.  When  the  infusion  has 
remained  in  the  jar  from  one  to  three  days,  the  liquid  is 
drawn  off  and  strained,  after  which  it  is  bottled  for  use ; 
and  if  a  dram-glass  of  any  ardent  spirit  is  put  into  each 
bottle,  the  infusion  may  either  be  used  immediately,  or 
kept  as  long  as  may  be  convenient." 

The  mode  of  preparing  rennet  in  the  dairy  districts 
of  this  country  is  various  ;  but  that  adopted  by  Mr. 
Fish,  of  Herkimer,  New  York,  already  quoted,  is  simple 
and  easy  of  application.  He  says  :  "  Various  opinions 
exist  as  to  the  best  mode  of  saving  rennet,  and  that  is 
generally  adopted  which,  it  is  supposed,  will  curdle  the 
most  milk.  I  have  no  objection  to  any  mode  that  will 
preserve  its  strength  and  flavor  so  that  it  will  be  smelled 
and  tasted  with  good  relish  when  put  into  the  milk.  Any 
composition  not  thus  kept  I  deem  unfit  for  use,  as  the 
coagulator  is  an  essential  agent  in  cheesing  the  curd, 
and  sure  to  impart  its  own  flavor. 

"  The  rennet  never  should  be  taken  from  the  calf  till 
the  excrement  shows  the  animal  to  be  in  perfect  health. 
It  should  be  emptied  of  its  contents,  salted,  and  dried, 
without  any  scraping  or  rinsing,  and  kept  dry  for  one 
year,  when  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  It  should  not  be 
allowed  to  gather  dampness,  or  its  strength  will  evap- 
orate. To  prepare  it  for  use,  into  ten  gallons  of  water, 
blood  warm,  put  ten  rennets  ;  churn  or  rub  them  often 
for  twenty-four  hours  ;  then  rub  and  press  them  to  get 
the  strength ;  stretch,  salt,  and  dry  them,  as  before. 
They  will  gain  strength  for  a  second  use.  Make  the 
liquor  as  salt  as  it  can  be  made,  strain  and  settle  it,  sep- 
arate it  from  the  sediment,  if  any,  and  it  is  fit  for  use. 


250  ANNATTO    FOR    COLORING. 

Six  lemons,  two  ounces  of  cloves,  two  ounces  of  cinna- 
mon, and  two  ounces  of  common  sage,  are  sometimes 
added  to  the  liquor,  to  preserve  its  flavor  and  quicken 
its  action.  If  kept  cool  in  a  stone  jar,  it  will  keep 
sweet  any  length  of  time  desired,  and  a  uniform  strength 
is  secured  while  it  lasts.  Stir  it  before  dipping  off.  To 
set  milk,  take  of  it  enough  to  curdle  milk  firm  in  forty 
minutes  ;  squeeze  or  rub  through  a  rag  annatto  enough 
to  make  the  curd  a  cream  color,  and  stir  it  in  with  the 
rennet."  It  will  be  seen  that  he  adopts  the  practice  of 
removing  the  contents  of  the  stomach.  This,  it  appears 
to  me,  is  the  best  calculated  to  promote  cleanliness  and 
purity,  so  important  in  making  a  good-flavored  cheese. 

But  in  Cheshire,  so  celebrated  for  its  superior  cheese, 
the  contents  of  the  stomach  are  frequently  salted  by 
themselves,  and  after  being  a  short  time  exposed  to  the 
air  are  fit  for  use  ;  while  the  well-known  and  highly- 
esteemed  Limburg  cheese  is  mostly  made  with  rennet 
prepared  as  in  Ayrshire,  the  curd  being  left  in  the 
stomach,  and  both  dried  together.  The  general  opinion 
is  that  rennet,  as  usually  prepared,  is  not  fit  to  use  till 
nearly  a  year  old. 

Perhaps  the  plan  of  making  a  liquid  rennet  from  new 
and  fresh  stomachs,  and  keeping  it  .in  bottles  corked 
tight  till  wanted  for  use,  would  tend  still  further  to 
secure  this  end. 

The  use  of  annatto  to  color  the  cheese  artificially  is 
somewhat  common  in  this  country,  though  probably  not 
so  much  so  as  in  many  other  countries.  Annatto,  or 
annotto,  is  made  from  the  red  pulp  of  the  seeds  of  an 
evergreen  tree  of  the  same  name,  found  in  the  West 
Indies  and  in  Brazil,  by  bruising  and  obtaining  a  precip- 
itate. A  variety  is  made  in  Cayenne,  which  comes  into 
the  market  in  cakes  of  two  or  three  pounds.  It  is  bright 
yellow,  rather  soft  to  the  touch,  but  of  considerable 


THE    CHEESE-PRESS. 


251 


solidity.  The  quantity  used  is  rarely  more  than  an 
ounce  to  one  hundred  pounds,  and  the  effect  is  simply 
to  give  the  high  coloring  so  common  to  the  Gloucester 
and  Cheshire  cheeses,  and  to  many  made  in  this  conn- 
try.  This  artificial  coloring  is  continued  from  an 
idle  prejudice,  somewhat  troublesome  to  the  dairyman, 
expensive  to  the  consumer,  and  adding  nothing  to  the 
taste  or  flavor  of  the  article.  The  annatto  itself  is  so 
universally  and  so  largely  adulterated,  often  by  poison- 
ous substances,  such  as  lead  and  mercury,  that  the  prac- 
tice of  using  it  by  the  cheese-maker,  and  of  requiring  the 
high  coloring  by  the  consumer,  might  well  be'  discon- 
tinued.  The  common  mode  of  application  is  to  dissolve  it 


Fig.  82.     Cheese-press. 


in  hot  milk,  and  add  at  the  time  of  putting  in  the  rennet, 
or  to  put  it  upon  the  outside,  in  the  manner  of  paint. 
The  cheese-presses  in  most  common  use  are  very  dif 


252 


THERMOMETER. TEMPERATURE. 


ferent  in  construction,  and  each  possesses,  doubtless, 
some  peculiar  merits.  The  self-acting  press,  Fig.  82,  is 
the  favorite  of  some.  Another  form  of  this  is  seen  in 
Fig.  83. 


Fig.  83.     Self-acting  cheese-press. 

One  of  the  most  extensive  and  experienced  dealers  in 
cheese,  in  one  of  the  largest  dairy  districts  of  New  York, 
—  Mr.  Harry  Burrill,  of  Little  Falls,  —  has  placed  in 
my  hands  the  following  simple  directions  for  cheese- 
making. 

The  cheese-tub  should  be  so  graduated  that  it  may 
be  correctly  known  what  quantity  of  milk  is  used.  This 
is  requisite,  in  order  that  the  proper  proportions,  both 
of  coloring  matter  and  rennet,  may  be  used.  The  tem- 
perature should  be  ascertained  by  the  thermometer. 
Experience    proves  that  when  the  dairy  has    been  at 


PRACTICAL    DIRECTIONS.  253 

seventy  degrees  the  best  temperature  at  which  to  run  the 
milk  will  be  eighty-four  degrees;  but,  as  the  temperature 
of  the  dairy  at  different  times  of  the  year  will  be  found 
to  vary  above  or  below  seventy  degrees,  the  temperature 
of  the  milk  must  be  proportionally  regulated  by  the 
simple  addition  of  cold  water,  to  lower  it ;  but,  to  in- 
crease the  temperature,  heat  the  milk  in  the  usual  man- 
ner, although  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  avoid  heating 
it  beyond  one  hundred  and  twenty  degrees. 

After  having  brought  the  milk  to  the  required  tempera- 
ture, and  added  the  coloring,  for  every  quarter  hundred 
weight  of  cheese  mix  one  pint  of  new  sour  whey  with  the 
requisite  proportion  of  rennet ;  and,  having  arrived  at 
the  formation  of  a  good  curd,  which  will  be  the  invari- 
able result  of  a  strict  adhesion  to  the  foregoing  rules, 
let  it  be  carefully  cut  up  with  three-bladed  knives,  as 
fine  as  possible  ;  then  dip  off  half  the  whey,  and  heat  a 
portion  of  it  to  the  temperature  of  ninety-five  degrees, 
and  return  it  to  the  whey  and  curds;  then,  after  stirring 
it  for  five  minutes,  allow  the  curd  to  sink,  and  as  quickly 
as  possible  dip  off  the  whey.  Having  done  this,  press 
the  curd  by  placing  on  it  a  board  weighted  with  from 
three  to  five  fifty-pound  weights,  which  will  gradually 
and  effectually  press  the  remainder  of  the  whey  out. 

When  the  whey  is  dipped  off,  put  the  curd  into  white 
twig  basket-vats,  made  the  shape  and  size  of  a  turned 
vat,  which  would  contain  the  sixth  of  a  hundred  weight 
(about  three  inches  deep,  and  two  feet  in  diameter).  It 
will  be  necessary  to  have  boards  about  one  inch  thick, 
and  two  feet  four  inches  in  diameter,  to  go  between 
each  of  these  twig  vats,  to  prevent  the  whey  running 
from  one  vat  into  the  other.  When  it  has  been  pressed, 
return  it  again  into  the  cheese-tub,  cut  it  into  small 
pieces,  put  it  into  the  vats  again  in  dry  cloths,  press  it 
and  return  it  to  the  tub  again,  cutting  it  into  small 
22 


254  FINE    COAT. — VARIETIES. 

pieces,  and  to  every  hundred  weight  of  curd  add  one 
and  one  quarter  pounds  of  salt ;  grind  it  twice,  and  stir 
it  so  that  it  shall  be  properly  mixed  with  the  salt ;  then 
put  it  into  well-perforated  turned  vats,  taking  care  to 
press  it  thoroughly  whilst  the  vats  are  filling,  to  prevent 
the  accumulation  of  air,  to  the  presence  of  which  is  to 
be  attributed  the  honeycomb  appearance  so  often  ob- 
served in  cheese  when  cut. 

When  the  cheese  is  put  into  the  press  let  the  press- 
ure gradually  upon  it.  After  it  has  been  in  press 
one  and  a  half  hours,  take  it  out  and  examine  it,  and, 
should  there  be  any  curd  pressed  over,  cut  it  round 
and  put  it  into  the  middle  of  the  cheese,  carefully  break- 
ing it  up  in  the  middle.  Wash  the  ends  of  the  cloths 
out  in  a  bowl  of  warm  water,  squeeze  them,  and  cover 
the  cheese  up,  and,  if  there  should  be  any  not  sufficiently 
fall,  it  will  be  necessary  either  to  put  a  follower  upon  it, 
or  to  put  it  into  a  smaller  vat ;  in  the  evening  let  them 
be  dry  clothed.  The  following  morning  salt  them  all 
over  and  dry  cloth  them,  and  repeat  this  three  suc- 
cessive mornings ;  after  which,  put  them  in  vats,  placed 
one  on  the  other,  and  allow  them  to  stand,  if  possible, 
a  fortnight,  occasionally  wiping  them.  The  cheese 
will  get  matured  much  sooner  by  these  means,  and  the 
tendency  to  cracking  and  bulging  be  prevented. 

The  way  to  get  a  fine  coat  upon  cheese,  after  the  first 
coat  has  been  washed  and  scraped  off,  is  to  put  the 
cheese  on  shelves,  nail  thick  sheeting  to  the  ceiling  from 
one  of  the  shelves  to  the  other,  and  let  it  drop  closely 
to  the  floor.  If  put  over  the  floor,  cover  them  over 
with  thick  sheeting,  or  rugs. 

The  varieties  of  cheese  are  almost  infinite  in  num- 
ber, and  are  often  dependent  on  very  minute  details  of 
practice.  The  general  principles  involved  are  the  same 
in  all  ;  but  it  would  be  next  to  impossible  to  find  any 


TO    WHAT    VARIETIES    ARE     OWING.  255 

one  variety  of  cheese  possessing  uniformity  through- 
out, in  point  of  texture,  consistency,  taste,  flavor,  and 
keeping  qualities  ;  and  it  is  rare,  with  the  present  guess- 
work in  many  of  the  operations  of  cheese-making,  to 
find  a  lot  of  cheese  made  in  the  same  dairy,  from  the 
same  cows,  on  the  same  pastures,  and  by  the  same 
hands,  which  can  be  considered  a  fair  sample  of  what  is 
generally  produced.  These  great  differences  are  due 
to  feeding  and  treatment  of  the  cows  in  part,  but 
especially  to  the  temperature  of  the  milk  at  the  time 
of  curding,  which  is  again  in  part  dependent  on  the 
quality  and  strength  of  the  rennet  employed. 

Nothing  is  more  susceptible  to  external  influences,  "• 
as  has  been  remarked  elsewhere,  than  milk  and  cream, 
both  of  which  are  liable  to  taint  from  the  food  of  the 
cows,  from  impurities  derived  from  careless  milking, 
from  exposure  to  foul  or  impure  air  in  the  cellar  or 
milk-room,  and  from  sudden  changes  in  the  atmosphere. 
The  most  scrupulous  cleanliness  is,  therefore,  required 
to  produce  a  first  quality  of  cheuse,  even  under  favor- 
able circumstances.  And  when  it  is  considered  that  it 
is  necessary  to  observe  minutely  the  temperature  of 
the  milk,  and  that  slight  differences  at  the  time  of 
forming  the  curd  may  make  the  difference  of  mellow- 
ness or  toughness  in  the  ripened  cheese,  and  that  the 
proper  temperature  is  affected  by  the  time  taken  to 
bring  the  curd,  which  depends  on  the  strength  and 
quality  of  the  rennet,  some  of  which  will  act  in  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes,  while  the  same  quantity  of  others 
requires  even  two  or  three  hours  to  produce  the  same 
effect,  the  infinite  variety  in  the  qualities  of  cheese  will 
scarcely  be  a  matter  of  surprise. 

A  brief  statement  of  the  mode  of  making  some  of 
the  more  important  and  well-known  varieties  will  be  suf- 
ficient in  this  connection.     The  details  of  cheese-making 


256  CHESHIRE    CHEESE. 

in  some  of  the  best  of  the  dairies  of  New  England  and 
New  York  correspond  in  a  remarkable  degree  with  the 
mode  of  making  Cheddar  and  Cheshire  cheese,  both 
celebrated  for  their  richness  and  popularity  in  the  mar- 
ket. Of  the  latter  there  are  made,  it  is  said,  over 
twelve  thousand  tons  annually;  Cheshire  taking  the 
lead  in  cheese-making,  and  keeping  about  forty  thousand 
cows. 

Cheshire  Cheese  is  remarkable  for  its  uniformity, 
being,  in  dairies  of  the  best  repute,  made  by  fixed  rules, 
and  usually  by  the  same  persons.  If  the  number  of 
cows  is  sufficient  to  make  a  cheese  from  one  meal,  that 
amount  is  used ;  if  not,  two  meals  are  united.  The 
cows  are  milked  at  six  o'clock,  morning  and  evening ; 
are  kept  on  rich  pastures,  and  never  driven  far,  great 
care  being  taken  that  nothing  shall  interfere  with  the 
regularity  with  which  every  operation  connected  with 
this  chief  source  of  the  wealth  and  prosperity  of  the 
Cheshire  farmer  is  conducted.  The  milk  is  brought  in 
large  wooden  pails  into  the  milk-house,  which  it  is  gen- 
erally contrived  shall  have  a  cool  north  aspect,  and 
immediately  strained  into  pans,  and  placed  upon  the 
floor  of  the  dairy.  Each  pan  is  about  six  inches  in 
depth,  and  usually  made  of  block-tin.  This  substance 
is  objected  to  by  some  because  it  is  liable,  like 
every  other  metal,  although,  perhaps,  in  a  less  degree 
than  either  zinc  or  lead,  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  lactic 
acid,  and  so  produce  compounds  of  a  deleterious  char- 
acter. At  six  o'clock  in  the  morning  the  cheese-ladder 
is  put  on  the  cheese-tub,  the  whole  of  the  night's  milk 
is  again  passed  through  the  sieve,  and  the  morning's 
milk  is  then  poured  upon  it,  and  well  agitated  to  equal- 
ize the  temperature  ;  in  cold  weather  a  pan  of  hot  water 
is  previously  put  into  the  tub,  to  increase  the  temper- 
ature of  the  previous  night's  meal. 


DETAILS    OF    MAKING.  257 

The  rennet  is  next  applied,  care  being  taken  that 
the  heat  of  the  whole  quantity  of  the  milk  is  about 
seventy-four  degrees ;  and,  almost  simultaneously  with 
the  rennet,  the  annatto,  —  about  a  quarter  of  an  ounce 
is  sufficient  for  a  cheese  of  sixty -four  pounds,  —  both 
of  which,  in  all  well-regulated  dairies,  are  strained 
through  a  piece  of  silk  or  fine  cloth.  The  rennet  is 
generally  made  on  the  previous  evening,  by  a  piece 
of  the  dried  skin  about  the  size  of  a  crown-piece  being 
immersed  in  hot  water,  and  allowed  to  stand  all  night. 
After  the  rennet  and  coloring  matter  have  been  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  the  milk,  it  is  covered  with  the  lid 
of  the  cheese-tub,  and  in  cold  weather  with  a  cloth  in 
addition,  to  preserve  the  temperature  of  the  mass  until 
the  curd  has  formed.  It  is  then  left  undisturbed  for 
about  an  hour,  and  frequently  longer,  to  allow  the  coag- 
ulation of  the  milk.  After  that  time  a  curd-breaker  is 
passed  up  and  down  it  for  about  five  minutes,  and 
again  it  is  allowed  to  settle  for  another  half-hour.  The 
whey  is  then  taken  out  by  means  of  a  dish  or  bowl,  the 
curd  being  gathered  to  one  side  of  the  tub,  and  gently 
pressed  by  the  hand,  to  allow  the  whey  to  separate  from 
it  more  easily.  It  is  then  pressed  by  a  weight  of  about 
fifty  pounds ;  afterwards  the  curd  is  taken  out  of  the 
tub  and  put  into  a  basket,  the  inside  of  which  is  cov- 
ered with  a  coarse  square  cheese-cloth.  The  four  ends 
of  the  cloth  are  then  folded  over  the  curd,  a  tin  hoop 
being  put  around  the  upper  edge  of  the  cheese,  and 
within  the  sides  of  the  vat,  upon  which  a  board  is  placed 
bearing  a  weight  of  about  one  hundred  pounds,  varying, 
of  course,  with  the  size  of  the  cheese.  This  process 
is  repeated  two  or  three  times,  the  curd  being  slightly 
broken  at  each  operation.  It  is  next  taken  out  of  the 
basket  for  salting  or  curing,  and  either  broken  down 
small  by  hand  or  in  a  curd-mill.  A  certain  quantity  of 
22*  17 


258  CHESHIRE     CHEESE. 

salt  is  then  carefully  and  intimately  mixed  with  the 
curd,  according  to  the  experience,  taste,  and  custom, 
of  the  dairymaid.  It  is  then  put  into  the  cheese-vat  in 
a  coarse  cloth,  pressed  lightly  at  first  for  an  hour;  then 
taken  out  and  turned,  and  the  pressure  increased  until 
the  proper  degree  of  consistence  is  attained.  After- 
wards it  is  turned  every  twelve  hours  for  three  or  four 
days,  remaining  in  the  vat  until  the  curd  becomes  so 
dry  as  not  to  moisten  the  cloth.  During  this  time 
skewers  are  passed  through  holes  made  in  the  sides 
of  the  vat  into  the  body  of  the  cheese,  the  more  effect- 
ually to  aid  the  expression  of  the  whey,  the  pressure 
being  still  continued.  When  they  are  withdrawn,  the 
whey  flows  through  these  miniature  tunnels,  which  are 
in  a  few  moments  obliterated  by  the  superincumbent 
weight. 

It  is  the  practice  of  some  dairymaids  in  this  county 
to  take  the  cheese  to  a  cool  salting-house,  leaving  it 
there  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  turning  it  daily,  and  rub- 
bing salt  on  the  upper  surface.  Others  immerse  the 
cheese  in  a  brine  almost  sufficiently  strong  to  float  it, 
with  occasional  turning ;  others,  again,  after  taking  the 
cheese  from  the  press,  place  it  in  a  furnace  at  a  mod- 
erate heat,  and  keep  it  closed  therein  for  a  night ;  while 
some  run  a  hot  iron  over  the  whole,  or  over  the  edges. 
The  binder  —  a  cloth  of  three  or  four  inches  in  breadth 
—  is  then  passed  tightly  round  the  cheese,  and  secured 
by  pins,  when  it  is  removed  to  the  cheese-room,  and 
placed  on  a  kind  of  grass,  which  in  Cheshire  is  called 
sniggle,  the  newest  or  latest-made  cheese  being  put  in 
the  warmest  situation.  Here  it  remains,  being  turned 
over  three  times  a  week  while  it  is  new,  and  less  often 
as  it  becomes  matured,  care  being  taken  to  keep  each 
one  of  the  cheeses  separate  from  all  the  others.  The 
room  selected  for  a  store  is  always  that  which  can  be 


STILTON    CHEESE.  259 

best  protected  from  the  light,  and  any  sudden  changes 
of  temperature.  The  best  Cheshire  cheese  is  seldom 
ripe  for  the  market  under  one  or  two  years. 

The  Stilton  Cheese  is  by  far  the  richest  of  the 
English  dairies.  This  originated  in  a  small  town  of  that 
name,  in  Leicestershire.  It  possesses  "  a  peculiar  deli- 
cacy of  flavor,  a  delicious  mellowness,  and  a  great  apt- 
ness to  acquire  a  species  of  artificial  decay ;  without 
which,  to  the  somewhat  vitiated  taste  of  lovers  of  Stilton 
cheese,  as  now  eaten,  it  is  not  considered  of  prime 
account.  To  be  in  good  order,  according  to  the  present 
standard  of  taste,  it  must  be  decayed,  blue,  and  moist." 
To  suit  this  taste,  an  artificial  mode  is  adopted,  old  and 
decayed  cheese  being  introduced  into  the  new,  or  port 
wine  or  ale  added  by  means  of  tasters,  or  caulking-pins 
are  stuck  into  them,  and  left  till  they  rust  and  produce 
an  appearance  of  decay  in  the  cheese. 

"  It  is  commonly  made  by  putting  the  night's  cream 
to  the  milk  of  the  following  morning  with  the  rennet, 
great  care  being  taken  that  the  milk  and  the  cream  are 
thoroughly  mixed  together,  and  that  they  both  have 
the  proper  temperature.  TJie  rennet  should  also  be 
very  pure  and  sweet.  As  soon  as  the  milk  is  curdled, 
the  whole  of  it  is  taken  out,  put  into  a  sieve  gradually 
to  drain,  and  moderately  pressed.  It  is  then  put  into 
a  case  or  box,  of  the  form  that  it  is  intended  to  be  ;  for, 
on  account  of  its  richness,  it  would  separate  and  fall  to 
pieces  were  not  this  precaution  adopted.  Afterwards 
it  is  turned  every  day  on  dry  boards,  cloth-binders  being 
tied  around  it,  which  are  gradually  tightened  as  occasion 
requires.  After  it  is  removed  from  the  box  or  hoop,  the 
cheese  must  be  closely  bound  with  cloths  and  changed 
daily,  until  it  becomes  sufficiently  compact  to  support 
itself.  When  these  cloths  are  taken  away,  each  cheese 
has  to  be  rubbed  over  with  a  brush  once  every  day.   If 


260        ACORN    FORM.  —  GLOUCESTER    CHEESE. 

the  weather  is  moist  or  damp,  this  is  done  twice  a  day 
during  two  or  three  months.  It  is  occasionally  pow- 
dered with  flour,  and  plunged  into  hot  water.  This 
hardens  the  outer  coat  and  favors  the  internal  ferment- 
ation, and  thus  produces  what  is  called  the  ripening 
of  the  cheese.  Sometimes  it  is  made  in  a  net  like  a 
cabbage-net,  which  gives  it  the  form  of  an  acorn." 

The  maturity  of  Stilton  cheeses  is  sometimes  has- 
tened by  putting  them  in  a  bucket,  and  covering  them 
over  with  horse-dung. 

Gloucester  Cheese  is  likewise  quite  celebrated  for 
its  richness,  piquancy,  and  delicacy  of  flavor,  and  justly 
commands  a  high  price  in  the  market.  The  manage- 
ment of  the  milk  up  to  the  time  of  curding  is  similar  to 
that  of  Cheshire ;  a  cheese,  often  being  made  of  one 
meal,  requires  no  additional  heat  to  raise  it  to  a  proper 
temperature.  After  the  curd  is  cut  into  small  squares, 
the  whey  is  carefully  drained  off  through  a  hair  strainer. 
The  cutting  is  repeated  every  thirty  minutes  till  the 
whey  is  removed,  when  it  is  put  into  vats  and  covered 
with  dry  cloths,  and  placed  in  the  press.  After  remain- 
ing a  sufficient  length  of  time,  it  is  put  into  a  curd-mill 
and  cut  or  ground  into  small  pieces,  when  it  is  again 
packed  in  fine  canvas  cloth,  and  put  in  the  cheese-vat. 
Hot  water  or  whey  is  poured  over  the  cloth,  to  harden 
the  rind  and  prevent  its  cracking.  "  The  curd  is  next 
turned  out  of  the  vat  into  the  cloth,  and,  the  inside  of 
the  vat  being  washed  with  whey,  the  inverted  curd 
with  the  cloth  is  returned  to  the  vat.  The  cloth  is  then 
folded  over,  and  the  vat  put  into  the  press  for  two 
hours,  when  it  is  taken  out,  and  dry  cloths  applied  dur- 
ing the  course  of  the  day.  It  is  then  replaced  in  the 
press  until  salted,  which  operation  is  generally  performed 
about  twenty-four  hours  after  it  is  made.  In  salting  the 
cheese,  it  is  rubbed  with  finely-powdered  salt,  and  this 


CHEDDAR  AND  DUNLOP  CHEESE.      261 

is  thought  to  make  the  cheese  more  smooth  and  solid 
than  when  the  salting  process  is  performed  upon  the 
curd.  The  cheese  is  after  this  returned  to  the  vat, 
and  put  under  the  press,  in  which  several  are  placed, 
the  newest  at  the  bottom  and  the  oldest  on  the  top. 
The  salting  is  repeated  three  times,  twenty-four  hours 
being  allowed  to  intervene  between  each ;  and  the 
cheese  is  finally  taken  from  the  press  to  the  cheese-room 
in  the  course  of  five  days.  In  the  cheese-room  it  is 
turned  over  every  day  for  a  month,  when  it  is  cleaned 
of  all  scurf,  and  rubbed  over  with  a  woollen  cloth 
dipped  in  a  paint  made  of  Indian  red  or  Spanish 
brown  and  small  beer.  As  soon  as  the  paint  is  dry, 
the  cheese  is  rubbed  once  a  week  with  a  cloth.  The 
quantity  of  salt  employed  is  about  three  and  a  half 
pounds ;  and  one  pound  of  annatto  is  sufficient  to  color 
half  a  ton  of  cheese." 

Cheddar  Cheese  is  another  variety  in  high  repute 
for  its  richness,  and  commands  a  high  price  in  the  mar- 
ket. It  is  made  of  new  milk  only,  and  contains  more 
fat  than  the  egg.  It  is,  indeed,  too  rich  for  ordinary 
consumption.  The  milk  is  set  with  rennet  while  yet 
warm,  and  allowed  to  stand  still  about  two  hours.  The 
whey  first  taken  off  is  heated  and  poured  back  upon  the 
curd,  and,  after  turning  off  the  remainder,  that  is  also 
heated  and  poured  back  in  the  same  manner,  where  it 
stands  about  half  an  hour.  The  curd  is  then  put  into 
the  press,  and  treated  very  much  as  the  Cheshire  up  to 
the  time  of  ripeness. 

The  Dunlop  Cheese,  the  most  celebrated  of  Scot- 
land, had  its  origin  in  Ayrshire,  from  which  it  was  sent 
to  the  Glasgow  market,  and  from  which  the  manufacture 
soon  spread  to  Lanark,  Renfrew,  and  other  adjoining 
counties.  It  is  manufactured,  according  to  Aiton,  in  the 
following  manner :    When  the  cows  on  a  farm  are  not 


262  MODE    OF    MAKING    DUNLOP    CHEESE. 

so  numerous  as  to  yield  milk  sufficient  to  make  a  cheese 
every  time  they  are  milked,  the  milk  is  stored  about 
six  or  eight  inches  deep  in  the  coolers,  and  placed  in 
the  milk-house  until  as  much  is  collected  as  will  form  a 
cheese  of  a  proper  size.  "When  the  cheese  is  to  be 
made,  the  cream  is  skimmed  from  the  milk  in  the  cool- 
ers, and,  without  being  heated,  is,  with  the  milk  that 
is  drawn  from  the  cows  at  the  time,  passed  through  the 
sieve  into  the  curd-vat.  The  cold  milk  from  which 
the  cream  has  been  taken  is  heated  so  as  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  whole  mass  to  near  blood  heat ;  and 
the  whole  is  coagulated  by  the  means  of  rennet  care- 
fully mixed  with  the  milk.  The  cream  is  put  into  the 
curd-vat,  that  its  oily  parts  may  not  be  melted,  and  the 
skimmed  milk  is  heated  sufficient  to  raise  the  whole 
to  near  animal  heat. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  utmost  care  is  always  taken 
to  keep  the  milk,  in  all  stages  of  the  operation,  free 
not  only  from  every  admixture  or  impurity,  but  also 
from  being  hurt  by  foul -air  arising  from  acidity  in 
any  milky  substance,  putrid  water,  the  stench  of  the 
barn,  dunghill,  or  any  other  substance  ;  and  likewise  to 
prevent  the  milk  from  becoming  sour,  which,  when  it 
happens,  greatly  injures  the  cheese.  Great  care  is  taken 
to  prevent  any  of  the  butyraceous  or  oily  matter  in  the 
cream  from  being  melted  in  any  stage  of  the  process. 
To  cool  the  milk,  and  to  facilitate  the  separation  or 
rising  of  the  cream,  a  small  quantity  of  clean  cold 
water  is  generally  mixed  with  the  milk  in  each  cooler. 
The  coagulum  is  formed  in  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes, 
and  nobody  would  use  rennet  twice  that  required  more 
than  twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour  to  form  a  curd. 
Whenever  the  milk  is  completely  coagulated  the  curd 
is  broken,  in  order  to  let  the  serum  or  whey  be  sep- 
arated and  taken  off.     Some  break  the  curd  slightly  at 


MR.  aiton's  statement.  263 

first,  by  making  cross-scores  with  a  knife  or  a  thin  piece 
of  wood,  at  about  one  or  two  inches  distant,  and  inter- 
secting each  other  at  right  angles ;  and  these  are 
renewed  still  more  closely  after  some  of  the  whey  has 
been  discharged.  Others  break  the  whole  curd  more 
minutely  at  once  with  the  hand  or  the  skimmer. 

After  the  curd  has  been  broken,  the  whey  ought  to 
be  taken  off  as  speedily  as  it  can  be  done,  and  with  as 
little  further  breaking  or  handling  the  curd  as  possible. 
It  is  necessary,  however,  to  turn  the  curd,  cut  it  with 
a  knife,  or  break  it  gently  with  the  hand. 

When  the  curd  has  consolidated  a  little,  it  is  cut 
with  the  cheese-knife,  slightly  at  first,  and  more  mi- 
nutely as  it  hardens,  so  as  to  bring  off  the  whey.  When 
the  greater  part  of  the  whey  has  been  extracted,  the 
curd  is  taken  up  from  the  curd-boyn,  and,  being  cut  into 
pieces  of  about  two  inches  in  thickness,  it  is  placed  in 
a  sort  of  vatf  or  sieve  with  many  holes.  A  lid  is  placed 
upon  it,  and  a  slight  pressure,  say  from  three  to  four 
stone  avoirdupois ;  and  the  curd  is  turned  up  and  cut 
small  every  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  occasionally 
pressed  with  the  hand  so  long  as  it  continues  to  dis- 
charge serum.  When  no  more  whey  can  be  drawn  off 
by  these  means,  the  curd  is  cut  as  small  as  possible  with 
the  knife,  the  proper  quantity  of  salt  minutely  mixed 
into  it  in  the  curd-boyn,  and  placed  in  the  chessart 
within  a  shift  of  thin  canvas,  and  put  under  the  press. 

All  these  operations  ought  to  be  carried  on  and  com- 
pleted with  the  least  possible  delay,  and  yet  without 
precipitation.  The  sooner  the  whey  is  removed  after 
the  coagulation  of  the  milk,  so  much  the  better.  But, 
if  the  curd  is  soft,  from  being  set  too  cold,  it  requires 
more  time,  and  to  be  more  gently  dealt  with,  as  other- 
wise much  of  the  curd  and  of  the  fat  would  go  off  with 
the  whey ;  and  when  the  curd  has  been  formed  too  hot,. 


264  CHEESE    IN     THE    SCOTCH     DAIRIES. 

the  same  caution  is  necessary.  Precipitation,  or  hand- 
ling the  curd  too  roughly,  would  add  to  its  toughness, 
and  expel  still  more  of  the  oily  matter  ;  and,  as  has  been 
already  mentioned,  hot  water  or  whey  should  be  put  on 
the  curd  when  it  is  soft  and  cold,  and  cold  water  when 
the  curd  is  set  too  hot. 

Undue  delay,  however,  in  any  of  these  operations, 
from  the  time  the  milk  is  taken  out  of  the  coolers  until 
the  curd  is  under  the  press  in  the  shape  of  a  cheese/ 
is  most  improper,  as  the  curd  in  all  these  stages  is, 
when  neglected  for  even  a  few  minutes,  very  apt  to 
become  ill-flavored.  If  it  is  allowed  to  remain  tco 
long  in  the  curd-vat,  or  in  the  dripper  over  it,  before 
the  whey  is  completely  extracted,  the  curd  becomes 
too  cold,  and  acquires  a  pungent  or  acrid  taste  ;  or,  it 
softens  so  much  that  the  cheese  is  not  sufficiently  adhe- 
sive, and  does  not  easily  part  with  the  serum.  Whenever 
the  curd  is  completely  set,  the  whey  should  be  taken  off 
without  delay ;  and  the  dairymaid  should  never  leave 
the  curd-boyn  until  the  curd  is  ready  for  the  dripper  or 
cheese-vat.     The  salt  is  mixed  into  the  curd. 

After  the  cheese  is  put  into  the  press,  it  remains  for 
the  first  time  about  an  hour,  or  less  than  two  hours, 
until  it  is  taken  out,  turned  upside  down  in  the  cheese- 
vat,  and  a  new  cloth  put  around  it  every  four  or  six 
hours  until  the  cheese  is  completed,  which  is  generally 
in  the  course  of  a  day  and  a  half,  two,  or  at  most  in 
three  days  after  it  was  first  put  under  the  press. 

Some  have  shortened  the  process  of  pressing  by 
placing  the  cheese  —  after  it  has  been  under  the  press 
for  two  hours  or  so  for  the  first  time  —  into  water 
heated  to  about  one  hundred  or  one  hundred  and  ten 
degrees,  and  allowing  the  cheese  to  remain  in  the  water 
about  the  space  of  half  an  hour,  and  thereafter  drying 
it  with  a  cloth,  and  putting  it  again  under  the  press. 


THE    STORE-ROOM.  265 

When  taken  from  the  press,  generally  after  two  or 
three  days  from  the  time  they  were  first  placed  under  it, 
they  are  exposed  for  a  week  or  so  to  the  warmth  and 
heat  of  the  farmer's  kitchen,  —  not  to  excite  sweating. 
but  merely  to  dry  them  a  little  before  they  are  placed 
in  the  store,  where  a  small  proportion  of  heat  is 
admitted.  While  they  remain  in  the  kitchen  they  are 
turned  over  three  or  four  times  every  day  ;  and,  when- 
ever they  begin  to  harden  a  little  on  the  outside,  they 
are  laid  up  on  the  shelves  of  the  store,  where  they  are 
turned  over  once  a  day  or  once  in  two  days  for  a 
week  or  so,  until  they  are  dry,  and  twice  every  week 
afterwards. 

The  store-houses  for  cheese  in  Scotland  are  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  dairy,  —  generally  a  small 
place  adjoining  the  milk-house,  or  in  the  end  of  the 
barn  or  other  buildings,  where  racks  are  placed,  with 
as  many  shelves  as  can  hold  the  cheeses  made  in  the 
season.  When  no  particular  place  is  prepared,  the 
racks  are  placed  in  the  barn,  which  is  generally  empty 
during  summer ;  or  some  lay  the  cheeses  on  the  floor 
of  a  garret  over  some  part  of  their  dwelling-house. 

Wherever  the  cheeses  are  stored,  they  are  not 
sweated  or  put  into  a  warm  place,  but  kept  cool,  in  a 
place  in  a  medium  state,  between  damp  and  dry,  with- 
out the  sun  being  allowed  to  shine  on  them,  or  yet  a 
great  current  of  air  admitted.  Too  much  air,  or  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  would  dry  the  cheeses  too  fast,  diminish 
their  weight,  and  make  them  crack  ;  and  heat  would 
make  them  sweat  or  perspire,  which  extracts  the  fat, 
and  tends  to  induce  hooving.  But  when  they  are  kept 
in  a  temperature  nearly  similar  to  that  of  a  barn,  the 
doors  of  which  are  not  much  open,  and  but  a  moderate 
current  of  air  admitted,  the  cheeses  are  kept  in  a 
proper  shape,  —  neither  so  dry  as  to  rend  the  skin,  nor  so 
23 


2ti6  DUTCH    AND     PARMESAN    CHEESE. 

damp  as  to  render  them  mouldy  on  the  outside ;  and  no 
partial  fermentation  is  excited,  but  the  cheese  is  pre- 
served sound  and  good. 

Dutch  Cheese.  —  The  most  celebrated  of  the  Dutch 
cheeses  is  the  Edam,  of  North  Holland,  and  the  Gouda. 
The  manufacture  of  these  and  other  varieties  will  be 
described  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  on  Dairy  Husbandry 
in  Holland. 

The  Parmesan  is  an  Italian  cheese,  made  of  one  meal 
of  milk,  allowed  to  stand  sixteen  hours,  to  which  is 
added  another  which  has  stood  eight  hours.  The  cream 
being  taken  from  both,  the  skim-milk  is  heated  an  hour 
over  a  slow  fire,  and  constantly  stirred  till  it  reaches 
about  eighty-two  degrees,  when  the  rennet  is  put  in  and 
an  hour  allowed  to  form  the  curd.  The  curd  is 
thoroughly  broken  or  cut,  after  which  a  part  of  the 
whey  is  removed,  and  the  curd  is  then  heated  nearly 
up  to  the  boiling  point,  when  a  little  saffron  is  added  to 
color  it.  It  then  stands  over  the  fire  about  half  an 
hour,  when  it  is  taken  off,  and  nearly  all  the  rest  of 
the  whey  removed,  cold  water  being  added,  till  the 
curd  is  cool  enough  to  handle.  It  is  then  surrounded 
with  a  cloth,  and,  after  being  partially  dried,  is  put 
into  a  hoop  and  remains  there  two  days.  It  is  then 
sprinkled  with  salt  for  thirty  days  in  summer,  or  about 
forty  in  winter.  One  cheese  is  then  laid  above  another 
to  allow  them  to  take  the  salt ;  after  which  they  are 
scraped  and  cleansed  every  day,  and  rubbed  with  lin- 
seed-oil to  preserve  them  from  the  attack  of  insects,  and 
they  are  ready  for  sale  at  the  age  of  six  months. 

American  Cheese,  as  it  is  called  in  the  English 
markets,  whither  large  quantities  are  shipped  for  sale, 
is  made  of  almost  every  conceivable  variety  and  quality, 
from  the  richest  Cheddar  or  Cheshire  to  the  poorest 
skim-milk  cheese.     The  statements  of  some  of  the  best 


AMERICAN    CHEESE.  267 

dairymen  have  already  been  given.  As  a  further  illus- 
tration of  the  mode  pursued  in  other  sections  of  the 
country,  the  statement  of  C.  G.  Taylor,  a  successful 
competitor  for  the  premiums  offered  by  the  Illinois  State 
Agricultural  Society,  may  be  given  as  follows : 

"  As  the  milk  is  drawn  from  the  cows,  it  is  immedi- 
ately strained  into  a  vat.  This  vat  is  a  new  patent,  and 
is  better  than  any  I  have  ever  seen  for  cheese-making. 
It  is  double,  a  space  being  left  between  the  two  parts. 
Into  the  upper  vat  the  milk  is  strained,  and  cold  water 
is  applied  between  it  and  the  lower  one.  Thus  the  ani- 
mal heat  is  soon  expelled,  and  the  milk  is  prevented 
from  souring  before  morning.  The  morning  milk  is 
added.  Under  the  lower  vat  a  copper  boiler  is 
arranged.  The  water  in  the  boiler  is  in  perfect  con- 
nection with  that  remaining  all  around  the  upper  or 
milk  vat,  connected  with  three  copper  pipes.  With  a 
little  wood  the  water  is  warmed.  Thus  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  milk  is  soon  brought  to  the  desired  point  to 
receive  the  rennet,  which  is  about  ninety  to  ninety- 
five  degrees.  Sufficient  rennet  is  applied  to  the  milk 
to  cause  it  to  curdle  or  coagulate  in  from  thirty  to 
forty  minutes.  Then  the  curd  is  carefully  cut,  each 
way,  into  slices  of  about  one  inch  square.  Soon  the 
temperature  is  slowly  increased.  In  about  twenty 
minutes  the  curd  is  carefully  broken  up  with  the  hand, 
—  increasing  the  heat,  and  stirring  often.  When  the 
curd  is  sufficiently  hard,  so  as  to  "squeal"  when  you  bite 
it,  it  is  scalded.  By  this  time  the  temperature  is  up  to 
about  one  hundred  and  thirty  or  one  hundred  and 
forty. 

"  There  are  hinges  placed  in  the  legs  of  one  end  of 
the  vat,  which  is  easily  tipped,  and  through  the  curd- 
strainer  and  whey-gate  the  whey  is  soon  run  off.  The 
curd  is  then  dipped  into  a  sink,  over  which  is  placed  a 


26«  COMPOSITION    OF    CHEESE. 

coarse  strainer,  and  allowed  to  drain  quite  dry.  It  is 
then  broken  up  fine,  and  one  teacup  of  ground  solar  salt 
added  to  curd  to  make  twenty  pounds  of  cheese,  and  well 
worked  in.  After  the  curd  is  quite  cool,  it  is  placed 
in  the  hoop,  and  a  light  pressure  is  applied.  In  a  few 
minutes  more  power  is  needed.  After  remaining  in  press 
about  six  hours,  it  is  taken  out  of  the  hoop,  wholly 
covered  with  strong  muslin,  finely  sewed  on,  and  then 
reversed  and  replaced  in  the  hoop  and  press.  It  is 
allowed  to  remain  until  the  next  day,  when  it  has  to 
give  place  for  another. 

"  After  pressing  thus  twenty -four  hours,  the  cheese  is 
placed  upon  the  shelf,  and  allowed  to  stand  until  the 
cloth  is  dry.  Then  a  preparation,  made  from  annatto 
and  butter-oil,  is  applied  sufficiently  to  fill  all  the 
interstices  of  the  cloth.  It  must  be  turned  and  thor- 
oughly rubbed  three  times  a  week,  until  ripe  for  use. 

"  I  use  the  self-acting  press.  I  know  of  none  in  use 
that  is  better,  —  the  weight  of  the  cheese  being  the 
power." 

The  statements  of  skilful  and  practical  dairymen,  m 
different  parts  of  the  country,  are  sufficient  to  show 
that  good  cheese  can  be  produced  ;  but  it  is  believed 
that  a  more  general  attention  to  all  the  details  of  the 
dairy  would  add  many  thousand  dollars  a  year  to  the 
wealth  of  the  people,  and  enable  us  to  compete  suc- 
cessfully with  the  best  dairy  countries  in  the  world. 

The  composition  of  cheese  will,  of  course,  differ 
widely  in  nutritive  value,  according  to  the  mode  of 
manufacture,  age,  etc.  A  specimen  of  good  cheese  was 
found  to  contain  about  31.02  per  cent,  of  flesh-forming 
substances,  25.30  per  cent,  of  heat-producing  sub- 
stances, 4.90  per  cent,  of  mineral  matter,  and  38.78  per 
cent,  of  water. 

The  analyses  of  several  varieties  will  serve  as  a  com 


CHEESE    AS    FOOD 


269 


parison  of  cheese  with  other  kinds  of  food.  The  Ched- 
dar was  a  rich  cheese  two  years  old,  the  double  Glou- 
cester one  year  old,  the  Dunlop  one  year  old,  the  skim- 
milk  one  year. 


Cheddar. 

Dbl.  Glo'ster. 

Dunlop. 

Skim-milk. 

Water,     .... 
Oaseine,  .... 

Fat, 

Ash, 

30.04 

28.98 

30.40 

4.58 

35.81 

37.9G 

21.97 

4.25 

38.46 

25.87 
31.86 

8.81 

43.82 
45.04 

5.98 
5.18 

Professor  Johnston  gives  a  table  of  comparison  of 
Cheddar  and  skim-milk  cheese  in  a  dried  state,  and  milk, 
beef,  and  eggs,  also  in  a  dried  state,  as  follows : 


Milk. 

Cheddar 
cheese,  dried. 

Skim-milk 
cheese,  dried. 

80 
11 

9 

Beef. 

Egga. 

Caseine  (curd),    . 
Fat  (butter) ,  .     . 
Sugar,  .... 
Mineral  matter,  . 

35 

24 

37 

4 

45 

48 

7 

89 

7 
4 

55 

40 

5 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

A  full-milk  cheese  differs  but  little  from  pure  milk, 
except  in  the  absence  of  sugar,  which,  as  already  seen, 
is  held  in  solution,  and  goes  off  in  the  whey.  The  dif- 
ference becomes  greater  in  proportion  as  the  cream  is 
removed  from  the  milk  before  curding,  and  the  nutritive 
qualities  thereby  diminished. 

Cheese  is  used  both  as  a  regular  article  of  food,  for 
which  the  ordinary  kinds  of  full-milk  cheeses  are 
admirably  fitted,  and  as  a  condiment  or  digester,  in  con- 
nection with  other  articles  of  food;  and  for  this  purpose 
the  stronger  varieties,  such  as  are  partially  decayed 
and  mouldy,  are  best.  "  When  the  curd  of  milk  is 
exposed  to  the  air  in  a  moist  state,  for  a  few  days,  at  a 
moderate  temperature,  it  begins  gradually  to  decay,  to 
emit  a  disagreeable  odor,  and  to  ferment.  When  in 
23* 


270  DIGESTIVE    QUALITY    OF    CHEESE. 

this  state,  it  possesses  the  property,  in  certain  circum- 
stances, of  inducing  a  species  of  chemical  change  and 
fermentation  in  other  moist  substances  with  which  it  is 
mixed,  or  is  brought  into  contact.  It  acts  after  the 
same  manner  as  sour  leaven  does  when  mixed  with 
sweet  dough.  Now,  old  and  partially  decayed  cheese 
acts  in  a  similar  way  when  introduced  into  the  stomach. 
It  causes  chemical  changes  gradually  to  commence 
among  the  particles  of  the  food  which  has  previously 
been  eaten,  and  thus  facilitates  the  dissolution  which 
necessarily  precedes  digestion.  It  is  only  some  kinds 
of  cheese,  however,  which  will  effect  this  purpose. 
Those  are  generally  considered  the  best  in  which  some 
kind  of  cheese-mould  has  established  itself.  Hence, 
the  mere  eating  of  a  morsel  of  cheese  after  dinner  does 
not  necessarily  promote  digestion.  If  too  new,  or  of 
improper  quality,  it  will  only  add  to  the  quantity  of 
food  with  which  the  stomach  is  probably  already  over- 
loaded, and  will  have  to  await  its  turn  for  digestion  by 
the  ordinaiy  processes."  This  mouldiness  and  tendency 
to  decay,  with  its  flavor  and  digestive  quality,  are 
often  communicated  to  new  cheese  by  inoculation,  or 
insertion  of  a  small  portion  of  the  old  into  the  interior 
of  the  new  by  means  of  the  cheese-taster. 

In  studying  attentively  the  practice  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful cheese-makers,  I  think  it  will  be  observed  that 
they  are  particularly  careful  about  the  preparation  of 
the  rennet,  and  equally  so  about  the  details  of  pressing. 
In  my  opinion,  the  point  in  which  many  American 
cheese-makers  fail  of  success  is  in  hurrying  the  press- 
ing. I  think  it  will  be  found  that  the  best  cheese  is 
pressed  two  days,  at  least,  and  in  many  cases  still 
longer. 


CHAPTER    X. 

THE    DISEASES    OF    DAIRY    STOCK. 

Dairy  stock,  properly  fed  and  managed,  is  liable  to 
few  diseases  in  this  country,  notwithstanding  the 
sudden  changes  to  which  our  climate  is  subject.  If 
pure  air,  pure  water,  a  dry  barn  or  pasture,  and  a  fre- 
quent but  gradual  change  of  diet,  when  kept  in  the  stall, 
are  provided  for  milch  cows,  nature  will  generally 
remedy  any  derangements  of  the  system  which  may 
occur,  far  better  than  art.  Common  sense  is  especially 
requisite  in  the  treatment  of  stock,  and  that  will  very 
rarely  dictate  a  resort  to  bleeding,  boring  the  horns, 
cutting  off  the  tail,  and  a  thousand  other  equally  absurd 
practices,  too  common  even  within  the  memory  of  men 
still  living. 

The  diseases  most  to  be  dreaded  are  garget,  puer- 
peral or  milk  fever,  and  idiopathic  or  common  fever, 
commonly  called  "  horn  ail,"  and  often  "  tail  ail." 

Garget  is  an  inflammation  of  the  internal  substance 
of  the  udder.  One  or  more  of  the  teats,  or  whole  sec- 
tions of  the  udder,  become  enlarged  and  thickened;  hot, 
tender,  and  painful.  The  milk  coagulates  in  the  bag, 
and  causes  inflammation  where  it  is  deposited,  which  is 
accompanied  by  fever.  It  most  commonly  occurs  in 
young  cows  after  calving,  especially  when  in  too  high 
condition.  The  secretion  of  milk  is  very  much  lessened, 
and,  in  very  bad  cases,  stopped  altogether.    Sometimes 


272  GARGET.  —  SYMPTOMS.  —  TREATMENT. 

the  milk  is  thick,  and  mixed  with  blood.  Often,  also 
in  -  vere  cases,  the  hind  extremities,  as  the  hip-joint/ 
hock,  or  fetlock,  are  swollen  and  inflamed  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  animal  cannot  rise.  The  simplest  remedy, 
in  mild  cases,  is  to  put  the  calf  to  its  mother  several 
times  a  day.  This  will  remove  the  flow  of  milk,  and 
often  dispel  the  congestion. 

Sometimes  the  udder  is  so  much  swollen  that  the  cow 
will  not  permit  the  calf  to  suck.  If  the  fever  increases, 
the  appetite  declines,  and  rumination  ceases.  In  this 
stage  of  the  complaint,  the  advice  of  a  scientific  veter- 
inary practitioner  is  required.  A  dose  of  purging 
medicine  and  frequent  washing  of  the  udder,  in  mild 
cases,  are  usually  successful.  The  physic  should  con- 
sist of  Epsom  salts  one  pound,  ginger  half  an  ounce, 
nitrate  of  potassa  half  an  ounce  ;  dissolved  in  a  quart  of 
boiling  water  ;  then  add  a  gill  of  molasses,  and  give  to 
the  cow  lukewarm.  Diet  moderate  ;  that  is,  on  bran,  or 
if  in  summer  green  food.  There  are  various  medicines 
for  the  different  forms  and  stages  of  garget,  which,  if 
the  above  medicine  fails,  can  be  properly  prescribed 
only  by  a  skilful  veterinary  practitioner. 

It  is  important  that  the  udder  should  be  frequently 
examined,  as  matter  may  be  forming,  which  should  be 
immediately  released.  Various  causes  are  assigned  for 
this  disease,  such  as  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  or  the 
want  of  proper  care  or  attention  in  parturition. 

An  able  writer,  Mr.  Youatt,  says  that  hasty  drying 
up  a  cow  often  gives  rise  to  inflammation  and  indura- 
tions of  the  udder,  difficult  of  removal.  Sometimes  a 
cow  lies  down  upon  and  bruises  the  udder,  and  this  is 
another  cause.  But  a  very  frequent  source,  and  one 
for  which  there  can  be  no  excuse,  is  the  failure  to  milk 
a  cow  clean.  The  calf  should  be  allowed  to  suck  often, 
and  the   cow   should  be   milked  at   least  twice  a  day 


PREVENTION  CHEAPER  THAN  CURE.     273 

as  clean  as  possible,  while  suffering  from  this  com- 
plaint. 

If  the  udder  is  hot  and  feverish,  a  wash  may  be 
used,  consisting  of  eight  ounces  of  vinegar  and  two 
ounces  of  camphoretted  spirit;  the  whole  well  and 
thoroughly  mixed,  and  applied  just  after  milking,  to  be 
washed  off  in  warm  water  before  milking  again. 

In  very  bad  cases,  iodine  has  often  been  found  most, 
effectual.  An  iodine  ointment  may  be  prepared  by 
taking  one  drachm  of  hydriodate  of  potash  and  an 
ounce  of  lard,  and  mixing  them  well  together.  A  small 
portion  of  the  mixture,  from  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg, 
in  limited  inflammations,  to  twice  that  amount,  is  to  be 
well  rubbed  into  the  swollen  part,  morning  and  night. 

When  milk  forms  in  the  bag  before  parturition,  so  as 
to  cause  a  swelling  of  the  udder,  it  should  be  milked 
away ;  and  a  neglect  of  this  precaution  often  leads  to 
violent  attacks  of  garget. 

Prevention  is  always  better  than  cure.  The  reason 
most  commonly  given  for  letting  the  cow  run  dry  for 
a  month  or  two  before  calving  is  that  after  a  long  period 
of  milking  her  system  requires  rest,  and  that  she  will 
give  more  milk  and  do  better  the  coining  season  than 
if  milked  up  to  the  time  of  calving. 

This  is  all  true,  and  a  reason  sufficient  in  itself  for 
drying  off  the  cow  some  weeks  before  parturition;  but 
there  is  another  important  reason  for  the  practice,  which 
is  that  the  mixture  of  the  old  milk  with  the  new  secre- 
tion is  liable  to  end  in  an  obstinate  case  of  garget. 

To  prevent  any  ill  effects  from  calving,  the  cow 
should  not  be  suffered  to  get  too  fat,  which  high  feed- 
ing after  drying  off  might  induce. 

The  period  of  gestation  is  about  two  hundred  and 
eighty-four  or  two  hundred  and  eighty-five  days.  But 
cows   sometimes   overrun   their   time,  and   have   been 

18 


274  GESTATION. — SLINKING.  —  CALVING. 

known  to  go  three  hundred  and  thirteen  days,  and  even 
more  ;  while  they  now  and  then  fall  short  of  it,  and  have 
been  known  to  calve  in  two  hundred  and  twenty  days. 
If  they  go  -much  over  the  average  time,  the  calf  will 
generally  be  a  male.  But  cows  are  sometimes  liable  to 
slink  their  calves;  and  this  usually  takes  place  about 
the  middle  of  their  pregnancy.  To  avoid  the  evil  cor- 
sequences,  so  far  as  possible,  they  should  be  watched : 
and,  if  a  cow  is  found  to  be  uneasy  and  feverish,  or 
wandering  about  away  from  the  rest  of  the  herd,  and 
apparently  longing  for  something  she  cannot  get,  she 
ought  to  be  taken  away  from  the  others. 

If  a  cow  slinks  her  calf  while  in  the  pasture  with 
others,  they  will  be  liable  to  be  affected  in  the  same  way. 

In  many  cases,  physicking  will  quiet  the  cow's  excite- 
ment in  the  condition  above  described,  and  prove  of  es- 
sential benefit.  A  dose  of  one  pound  of  Epsom  or  Glau- 
ber's salts,  and  one  ounce  of  ginger,  mixed  in  a  pint  of 
thick  gruel,  should  be  given  first,  to  be  immediately 
followed  by  the  salts,  in  a  little  thinner  gruel. 

When  a  cow  once  slinks  her  calf,  there  is  great  risk  in 
breeding  from  her.  She  is  liable  to  do  the  same  again. 
'But  when  the  slinking  is  caused  by  sudden  fright  or 
over-exertion,  or  any  offensive  matter,  such  as  blood  or 
the  dead  carcasses  of  animals,  this  result  is  not  so  much 
to  be  feared. 

But  the  cow,  when  about  to  calve,  ought  not  to  be 
disturbed  by  too  constant  watching.  The  natural  pre- 
sentation of  the  foetus  is  with  the  head  lying  upon  the 
fore  legs.  If  in  this  position,  nature  will  generally  do 
all.  But,  if  the  presentation  is  unnatural,  and  the  labor 
has  been  long  and  ineffectual,  some  assistance  is 
required.  The  hand,  well  greased,  may  be  introduced, 
and  the  position  of  the  calf  changed ;  and,  when  in  a 
proper  position,  a  cord  should  be  tied  round  the  fore 


FALSE    PRESENTATIONS. — MILK     FEVER.       275 

legs,  just  above  the  hoofs  ;  but  no  effort  should  be 
made  to  draw  out  the  calf  till  the  natural  throes  are  re- 
peated. If  the  nostril  of  the  calf  has  protruded,  and  the 
position  is  then  found  to  be  unnatural,  the  head  cannot 
be  thrust  back  without  destroying  the  life  of  the  calf. 

The  false  position  most  usually  presented  is  that  of 
the  head  first,  with  the  legs  doubled  under  the  belly.  A 
cord  is  then  fixed  around  the  lower  jaw,  when  it  is 
pushed  back,  to  give  an  opportunity  to  adjust  the  fore 
legs,  if  possible.  The  object  must  now  be  to  save  the 
life  of  the  cow. 

But  the  cases  of  false  presentation,  though  compara- 
tively rare,  are  so  varied  that  no  directions  could  be 
given  which  would  be  applicable  in  all  cases. 

After  calving  the  cow  will  require  but  little  care,  if  she 
is  in  the  barn,  and  protected  from  changes  of  weather. 
A  warm  bran  mash  is  usually  given,  and  the  state  of 
the  udder  examined. 

Puerperal  or  Milk  Fever. —  Calving  is  often  at 
tended  with  feverish  excitement.  The  change  of  power- 
ful action  from  the  womb  to  the  udder  causes  much 
constitutional  disturbance  and  local  inflammation.  A  cow 
is  subject  to  nervousness  in  such  circumstances,  which 
sometimes  extends  to  the  whole  system,  and  causes 
puerperal  fever.  This  complaint  is  called  droj^ping 
after  calving,  because  it  succeeds  that  process.  The 
prominent  symptom  is  a  loss  of  power  over  the  motion 
of  the  hind  extremities,  and  inability  to  stand ;  some- 
times loss  of  sensibility  in  these  parts,  so  that  a  deep 
puncture  with  a  pin,  or  other  sharp  instrument,  is  unfelt. 

This  disease  is  much  to  be  dreaded  by  the  farmer,  on 
account  of  the  high  state  of  excitement  and  the  local 
inflammation.  Either  from  neglect  or  ignorance,  the  mal- 
ady is  not  discovered  until  the  manageable  symptoms 
have  passed,  and  extreme  debility  has  appeared.     The 


276  MILK    FEVER. —  SYMPTOMS. 

animal  is  often  first  seen  lying  down,  unable  to  rise ; 
prostration  of  strength  and  violent  fever  are  brought  on 
by  inflammation  of  the  womb.  But  soon  a  general 
inflammatory  action  succeeds,  rapid  and  violent,  with 
complete  prostration  of  all  the  vital  forces,  bidding 
defiance  to  the  best-selected  remedies. 

Cows  in  very  high  condition,  and  cattle  removed  from 
low  keeping  to  high  feeding,  are  the  most  liable  to 
puerperal  lever.  It  occurs  most  frequently  during  the 
hot  weather  of  summer,  and  then  it  is  most  dangerous. 
When  it  occurs  in  winter,  cows  sometimes  recover.  In 
hot  weather  they  usually  die. 

Milk  fever  ma}'  be  induced  by  the  hot  drinks  often 
given  after  calving.  A  young  cow  at  her  first  calving 
is  rarely  attacked  with  it.  Great  milkers  are  most  com- 
monly subject  to  it;  but  all  cows  have  generally  more 
or  less  fever  at  calving.  A  little  addition  to  it,  by  im- 
proper treatment  or  neglect,  will  prevent  the  secretion 
of  milk  ;  and  thus  the  milk,  being  thrown  back  into  the 
system,  will  increase  the  inflammation. 

This  disease  sometimes  shows  itself  in  the  short 
space  of  two  or  three  hours  after  calving,  but  often  not 
under  two  or  three  days.  If  four  or  five  days  have 
passed,  the  cow  may  generally  be  considered  safe.  The 
earliest  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  as  follows  : 

The  animal  is  restless,  frequently  shifting  her  posi- 
tion ;  occasionally  pawing  and  heaving  at  the  flanks. 
Muzzle  hot  and  dry,  the  mouth  open,  and  tongue 
out  at  one  side  ;  countenance  wild ;  eyes  staring.  She 
moans  often,  and  soon  becomes  very  irritable.  Delirium 
follows ;  she  grates  her  teeth,  foams  at  the  mouth, 
tosses  her  head  about,  and  frequently  injures  herself. 
From  the  first,  the  udder  is  hot,  enlarged,  and  tender ; 
and  if  this  swelling  is  attended  by  a  suspension  of  milk, 
the   cause  is   clear.      As  the  case  is  inflammatory,  its 


BLEEDING  RARELY  NECESSARY.       277 

treatment  must  be  in  accordance  ;  and  it  is  usually 
subdued  without  much  difficulty.  Mr.  Youatt  says, 
"  The  animal  should  be  bled,  and  the  quantity  regulated 
by  the  impression  made  upon  the  circulation,  —  from 
six  to  ten  quarts  often  before  the  desired  effect  is  pro- 
duced." He  wrote  at  a  time  when  bleeding  was 
adopted  as  the  universal  cure,  and  before  the  general 
reasoning  and  treatment  of  diseases  of  the  human  sys- 
tem was  applied  to  similar  diseases  of  animals.  The 
cases  are  very  rare,  indeed,  where  the  physician  of  the 
present  day  finds  it  necessary  to  bleed  in  diseases  of 
the  human  subject ;  and  they  are  equally  rare,  I  appre- 
hend, where  it  is  really  necessary  or  judicious  to  bleed 
for  the  diseases  of  animals.  A  more  humane  and 
equally  effectual  course  will  be  the  following : 

A  pound  to  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  Epsom  or  Glau- 
ber's salts,  according  to  the  size  and  condition  of  the 
animal,  should  be  given,  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  boiling 
water ;  and,  when  dissolved,  add  pulv.  red  pepper  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce,  caraway  do.  do.,  ginger  do.  do. : 
mix,  and  add  a  gill  of  molasses,  and  give  lukewarm. 
If  this  medicine  does  not  act  on  the  bowels,  the  quantity 
of  ginger,  capsicum,  and  caraway,  must  be  doubled. 
The  insensible  stomach  must  be  roused.  When  purg- 
ing in  an  early  stage  is  begun,  the  fever  will  more 
readily  subside.  After  the  operation  of  the  medicine, 
sedatives  may  be  given,  if  necessary. 

The  digestive  function  first  fails,  when  the  secondary 
or  low  state  of  fever  comes  on.  The  food  undis- 
charged ferments ;  the  stomach  and  intestines  are 
inflated  with  gas,  and  swell  rapidly.  The  nervous 
system  is  also  attacked,  and  the  poor  beast  staggers. 
The  hind  extremities  show  the  weakness ;  the  cow 
falls,  and  cannot  rise ;  her  head  is  turned  on  one  side. 
^Yhere  it  rests ;  her  limbs  are  palsied.  The  treatment 
24 


278  THE    PULSE.  —  PRESCRIPTION. 

in  this  stage  must  depend  on  the  existence  and  degree 
of  fever.  The  pulse  will  be  the  only  true  guide.  If  it 
is  weak,  wavering,  and  irregular,  we  must  avoid  deplet- 
ing, purgative  agents.  The  blood  flows  through  the 
arteries,  impelled  by  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  its 
pulsations  can  be  very  distinctly  felt  by  pressing  the 
finger  upon  almost  any  of  these  arteries  that  is  not  too 
thipkly  covered  by  fat  or  the  cellular  tissues  of  the 
skin,  especially  where  it  can  be  pressed  upon  some 
hard  or  bony  substance  beneath  it.  The  most  conve- 
nient place  is  directly  at  the  back  part  of  the  lower  jaw, 
where  a  large  artery  passes  over  the  edge  of  the  jaw- 
bone to  ramify  on  the  face.  The  natural  pulse  of  a  full- 
grown  ox  will  vary  from  about  forty-eight  to  fifty-five 
beats  a  minute ;  that  of  a  cow  is  rather  quicker, 
especially  near  the  time  of  calving ;  and  that  of  a  calf 
is  quicker  than  that  of  a  cow.  But  a  very  much 
quicker  rate  than  that  indicated  will  show  a  feverish 
state,  or  inflammation ;  and  a  much  slower  pulsation 
indicates  debility  of  some  kind. 

Next  in  importance,  as  we  have  already  stated,  is 
the  physic.  The  bowels  must  be  opened,  or  the  ani- 
mal will  fall  a  victim  to  the  disease.  All  medicines 
should  be  of  an  active  character,  and  in  sufficient 
quantity ;  and  stimulants  should  always  be  added  to 
the  purgative  medicines,  to  insure  their  operation. 
Ginger,  gentian,  caraway,  or  red  pepper  in  powder,  may 
be  given  with  each  dose  of  physic.  Some  give  a  power- 
ful purgative,  by  means  of  Epsom  salts  one  pound,  flour 
of  sulphur  four  ounces,  powdered  ginger  a  quarter  of 
an  ounce,  all  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  cold  water,  and 
one  half  given  twice  a  day  till  the  bowels  are  opened 
The  digestive  organs  are  deranged  in  most  forms 
of  milk  fever,  and  the  third  stomach  is  loaded  with 
hard,  indigestible  food.    When  the  medicine  has  operated, 


PROPER    NURSING.  — SIMPLE    FEVER.  279 

and  the  fever  is  subdued,  little  is  required  but  good 
nursing  to  restore  the  patient. 

No  powerful  medicines  should  be  used  without  dis- 
cretion ;  for  in  the  milder  forms  of  the  disease,  as  the 
simple  palsy  of  the  hind  extremities,  the  treatment, 
though  of  a  similar  character,  should  be  less  powerful, 
and  every  effort  should  be  made  for  the  comfort  of  the 
cow,  by  providing  a  thick  bed  of  straw,  and  raising  the 
fore  quarters  to  assist  the  efforts  of  nature,  while  all 
filth  should  be  promptly  and  carefully  removed.  She 
may  be  covered  with  a  warm  cloth,  and  warm  gruel 
should  be  frequently  offered  to  her,  and  light  mashes., 
An  attempt  should  be  made  several  times  a  day  to 
bring  milk  from  the  teats.  The  return  of  milk  is  an 
indication  of  speedy  recovery. 

Milch  cows  in  too  high  condition  appear  to  have  a 
constitutional  tendency  to  this  complaint,  and  one 
attack  of  it  predisposes  them  to  another. 

Simple  Fever.  —  This  may  be  considered  as  increased 
arterial  action,  with  or  without  any  local  affection ;  or 
it  may  be  the  consequence  of  the  sympathy  of  the  sys- 
tem with  the  morbid  condition  of  some  particular  part. 
The  first  is  pure  or  idiopathic  fever ;  the  other,  symptom- 
atic fever.  Pure  fever  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  cattle. 
Symptoms  as  follows:  muzzle  dry;  rumination  slow 
or  entirely  suspended ;  respiration  slightly  accelerated  ; 
the  horn  at  the  root  hot,  and  its  other  extremity  fre- 
quently cold;  pulse  quick;  bowels  constipated;  coat 
staring,  and  the  cow  is  usually  seen  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  herd.  In  slight  attacks,  a  cathartic  of  salts, 
sulphur,  and  ginger,  is  sufficient.  But,  if  the  common 
fever  is  neglected,  or  improperly  treated,  it  may  assume, 
after  a  time,  a  local  determination,  as  pleurisy,  or 
inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  bowels.  In  such  cases  the 
above  remedy  would  be  insufficient,  and  a  veterinary 


'280  SYMPTOMATIC     FEVER. 

surgeon,  to  manage  the  case,  would  be  necessary. 
Symptomatic  fever  is  more  dangerous,  and  is  commonly 
the  result  of  injury,  the  neighboring  parts  sympathizing 
with  the  injured  part.  Cattle  become  unwell,  are  stinted 
in  their  feed,  have  a  dose  of  physic,  and  in  a  few  days 
are  well ;  still,  a  fever  may  terminate  in  some  local 
affection.  But  in  both  cases  pure  fever  is  the  primary 
disease. 

A  more  dangerous  form  of  fever  is  that  known  as 
symptomatic.  As  we  have  said,  cattle  are  not  only 
subject  to  fever  of  common  intensity,  but  to  syrup 
tomatic  fever,  and  thousands  die  annually  from  its 
effects.  But  the  young  and  the  most  thriving  are  its 
victims.  There  are  few  premonitory  symptoms  of  symp- 
tomatic fever.  It  often  appears  without  any  previous 
indications  of  illness.  The  animal  stands  with  her  neck 
extended,  her  eyes  protruding  and  red,  muzzle  dry, 
nostrils  expanded,  breath  hot,  base  of  the  horn  hot, 
mouth  open,  pulse  full,  breathing  quick.  She  is  often 
moaning  ;  rumination  and  appetite  are  suspended  ;  she 
soon  becomes  more  uneasy;  changes  her  position  often. 
Unless  these  symptoms  are  speedily  removed,  she  dies 
in  a  few  hours.  The  name  of  the  ailment,  inflam- 
matory or  symptomatic  fever,  shows  the  treatment 
necessary,  which  must  commence  with  purging.  Salts 
here,  as  in  most  inflammatory  diseases,  are  the  most 
reliable.  From  a  pound  to  a  pound  and  a  half,  with 
ginger  and  sulphur,  is  a  dose,  dissolved  in  warm  water 
or  thin  gruel.  If  this  does  not  operate  in  twelve  hours, 
give  half  the  dose,  and  repeat  once  in  twelve  hours/ 
until  the  bowels  are  freed.  After  the  operation  of  the 
medicine  the  animal  is  relieved.  Then  sedative  medi- 
cines may  be  given.  Sal  ammoniac  one  drachm,  pow- 
dered nitre  two  drachms,  should  be  administered  in  thin 
gruel,  two   or  three  times  a  day,  if  required. 


ASSISTING    NATURE. —  PURGATIVES.  281 

Typhus  fever,  common  in  some  countries,  is  little 
known  here  among*  cattle. 

Typhoid  Fever  sometimes  follows  intense  inflamma- 
tory action,  and  is  considered  the  second  stage  of  it. 
This  form  of  fever  is  usually  attended  with  diarrhoea. 
It  is  a  debilitating  complaint,  and  is  sometimes  followed 
by  diseases  known  as  black  tongue,  black  leg,  or  quarter 
evil.  The  cause  of  typhoid  fever  is  involved  in  obscur- 
ity. It  may  be  proper  to  say  that  copious  drinks  of 
oat-meal  gruel,  with  tincture  of  red  pepper,  a  diet  of 
bran,  warmth  to  the  body,  and  pure  air,  are  great 
essentials  in  the  treatment  of  this  disease. 

The  barbarous  practices  of  boring  the  horns,  cutting 
the  tail,  and  others  equally  absurd,  should  at  once  and 
forever  be  discarded  by  every  farmer  and  dairyman. 
Alternate  heat  or  coldness  of  the  horn  is  only  a  symptom 
of  this  and  other  fevers,  and  has  nothing  to  do  with 
their  cause.  The  horns  are  not  diseased  any  further 
than  a  determination  of  blood  to  the  head  causes  a 
sympathetic  heat,  while  an  unnatural  distribution  of 
blood,  from  exposure  or  other  cause,  may  make  them 
cold. 

In  all  cases  of  this  kind,  if  anything  is  done,  it  should 
be  an  effort  to  assist  nature  to  regulate  the  animal  sys- 
tem, by  rousing  the  digestive  organs  to  their  natural 
action,  by  a  light  food,  or,  if  necessary,  a  mild  purga- 
tive medicine,  followed  by  light  stimulants. 

The  principal  purgative  medicines  in  use  for  neat 
cattle  are  Epsom  salts,  linseed-oil,  and  sulphur.  A 
pound  of  salts  will  ordinarily  be  sufficient  to  purge  a 
full-grown  cow. 

A    slight   purgative   drink  is    often   very  useful   for 

cows  soon  after  calving,  particularly  if  feverish,  and  in 

cases  of  over-feeding,  when  the  animal  will  often  appear 

dull  and  feverish ;  but  when  the  surfeiting  is  attended 

24* 


282  THE     HOOVES. 

by  loss  of  appetite,  it  can  generally  be  cured  by  with- 
holding food  at  first,  and  then  feeding  but  slightly  till 
the  system  is  renovated  by  dieting. 

Purgative  drinks  will  often  cure  cases  of  red  water, 
if  taken  in  season. 

A  purgative  is  often  necessary  for  cows  after  being 
turned  into  a  fresh  and  luxuriant  pasture,  when  they 
are  apt  to  become  bound  from  over-feeding;  but  con- 
stipation does  not  so  often  follow  a  change  from  dry  to 
green  food  in  spring,  as  from  a  poor  pasture  in  summer 
to  one  where  they  obtain  much  better  feed. 

The  Hoove  or  Hovex  is  brought  on  by  a  derange- 
ment of  the  digestive  organs,  occasioned  by  over-feed- 
ing on  green  and  luxuriant  clover,  or  other  luxuriant 
food.  It  is  simply  the  distension  of  the  first  stom- 
ach by  carbonic  acid  gas.  In  later  stages,  after  fer- 
mentation of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  has  com- 
menced, hydrogen  gas  is  also  found.  The  green  food, 
being  gathered  very  greedily  after  the  animal  has  been 
kept  on  dry  and  perhaps  unpalatable  hay,  is  not  sent 
forward  so  rapidly  as  it  is  received,  and  remains  to 
overload  and  clog  the  stomach,  till  this  organ  ceases  or 
loses  the  power  to  act  upon  it.  Here  it  becomes  moist 
and  heated,  begins  to  ferment,  and  produces  a  gas 
which  distends  the  paunch  of  the  animal,  which  often 
swells  up  enormously.  The  cow  is  in  great  pain,  breath- 
ing with  difficulty,  as  if  nearly  suffocating.  Then  the  body 
grows  cold,  and,  unless  relief  is  at  hand,  the  cow  dies. 

Prevention  is  both  cheaper  and  safer  than  cure ;  but 
if  by  neglect,  or  want  of  proper  precaution,  the  animal 
is  found  in  this  suffering  condition,  relief  must  be 
afforded  as  soon  as  possible,  or  the  result  will  be  fatal. 

A  hollow  flexible  tube,  introduced  into  the  gullet, 
will  sometimes  afford  a  temporary  relief  till  other  means 
can  be  had,  by  allowing  a  part  of  the  gas  to   escape ; 


CHOKING. REMOVAL.  283 

but  the  cause  is  not  removed  either  by  this  means  or 
by  puncturing  the  paunch,  which  is  often  dangerous. 

In  the  early  stage  of  the  disease  the  gas  may  be  neu- 
tralized by  ammonia,  which  is  usually  near  at  hand. 
Two  ounces  of  liquid  ammonia,  in  a  quart  of  distilled 
or  rain  water,  given  every  quarter  of  an  hour,  will 
prove  beneficial.  A  little  tincture  of  ginger,  essence 
of  anise-seed,  or  some  other  cordial,  may  be  added,  with- 
out lessening  the  effect  of  the  ammonia. 

If  the  case  has  assumed  an  alarming  character,  the 
flexible  tube,  or  probang,  may  be  introduced,  and  after- 
wards take  three  drachms  either  of  the  chloride  of 
lime  or  the  chloride  of  soda,  dissolve  in  a  pint  of 
water,  and  pour  it  down  the  throat.  Lime-water,  pot- 
ash, and  sulphuric  ether,  are  often  used  with  effect. 

In  desperate  cases  it  may  be  found  necessary  to 
make  an  incision  through  the  paunch ;  but  the  chloride 
of  lime  will,  in  most  cases,  give  relief  at  once,  by 
neutralizing  the  gas. 

Choking  is  often  produced  by  feeding  on  roots,  par- 
ticularly round  and  uncut  roots,  like  the  potato.  The 
animal  slavers  at  the  mouth,  tries  to  raise  the  obstruction 
from  the  throat,  often  groans,  and  appears  to  be  in 
great  pain.  Then  the  belly  begins  to  swell,  from  the 
amount  of  gases  in  the  paunch. 

The  obstruction,  if  not  too  large,  can  sometimes  be 
thrust  forward  by  introducing  a  flexible  rod,  or  tube, 
into  the  throat.  This  method,  if  adopted,  should  be 
attended  with  great  care  and  patience,  or  the  tender 
parts  will  be  injured.  If  the  obstruction  is  low  down, 
and  a  tube  is  to  be  inserted,  a  pint  of  olive  or  linseed 
oil  first  turned  down  will  so  lubricate  the  parts  as  to 
aid  the  operation,  and  the  power  applied  must  be  steady. 
If  the  gullet  is  torn  by  the  carelessness  of  the  operator, 
or  the  roughness  of  the  instrument,  a  rupture  generally 


284  FOUL    IN    THE    FOOT.  —  CURE. 

results  in  serious  consequences.  A  hollow  tube  is 
best,  and  if  the  object  is  passed  on  into  the  paunch,  the 
tube  should  remain  a  short  time,  to  permit  the  gas  to 
escape.  In  case  the  animal  is  very  badly  swelled,  the 
dose  of  chloride  of  lime,  or  ammonia,  should  be  given, 
as  for  the  hoove,  after  the  obstruction  is  removed. 

Care  should  be  taken,  after  the  obstruction  is 
removed,  to  allow  no  solid  food  for  some  days. 

Foul  in  the  Foot.  —  Cows  and  other  stock,  when 
fed  in  low,  wet  pastures,  will  often  sutler  from  ulcers 
or  sores,  generally  appearing  first  between  the  claws. 
This  is  commonly  called  foul  in  the  foot,  and  is  analo- 
gous to  foot-rot  in  sheep.  It  is  often  very  painful, 
causing  severe  lameness  and  loss  of  flesh,  and  dis- 
charges a  putrid  matter,  or  pus.  Sometimes  it  first 
appears  in  the  form  of  a  swelling  near  the  top  of  the 
hoof,  which  breaks  and  discharges  foul  matter. 

The  rough  and  common  practice  among  farmers  is  to 
fasten  the  foot  in  the  same  manner  as  the  foot  of  an  ox 
is  fastened  in  shoeing,  and  draw  a  rough  rope  back  and 
forth  over  the  ulcerated  parts,  so  as  to  produce  a 
clean,  fresh  wound,  and  then  dress  it  with  tar  or  other 
similar  substance. 

This  is  often  an  unnecessarily  cruel  operation.  The 
loose  matter  may  easily  be  removed  by  a  knife,  and  then 
carefully  wiped  off  with  with  a  moist  sponge.  The  ani- 
mal should  then  be  removed  at  once  to  a  warm,  dry 
pasture,  or  kept  in  the  barn. 

If  the  case  has  been  neglected  till  the  pasteins 
become  swollen  and  tender,  the  sore  maybe  thoroughly 
cleansed  out,  and  dressed  with  an  ointment  of  sul 
phate  of  iron  one  ounce,  molasses  four  ounces,  sim- 
mered over  a  slow  fire  till  well  mixed.  Apply  on  a 
piece  of  cotton  batting,  and  secure  upon  the  parts.  If 
any  morbid  growth   or  fungus  appear,  use  equal  parts 


RED    WATER.  —  TREATMENT.  285 

of  powdered  blood-root  and  alum  sprinkled  on  the  sore, 
and  this  will  usually  effect  a  cure. 

Some  also  give  a  dose  of  flour  of  sulphur  half  an 
ounce,  powdered  sassafras-bark  one  ounce,  and  bur- 
dock two  ounces,  the  whole  steeped  in  a  quart  of  boil- 
ing water,  and  strained  when  cool :  and,  if  the  matter 
still  continues  to  flow  from  the  sore,  wash  it  morning 
and  night  with  chloride  of  soda  one  ounce,  or  a  table- 
spoonful  of  common  salt  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water. 

Foul  in  the  foot  causes  very  serious  trouble,  if  not 
taken  in  season.  The  health  of  cows  is  injured  to  a 
great  extent.  I  have  seen,  during  the  present  season, 
many  instances  of  foul  in  the  foot  in  dairy  stock  arising 
from  the  wetness  of  the  pastures.  No  lameness  in 
cattle  should  be  neglected. 

Red  Water  is  so  called  from  the  high  color  of  the 
urine.  It  is  rather  a  symptom  of  some  derangement  of 
the  digestive  organs  than  a  disease  of  itself,  and  the 
cause  is  most  frequently  to  be  found  in  the  quality 
of  the  food.  It  is  peculiar  to  certain  localities,  and  is 
of  very  rare  occurrence  in  New  England. 

In  the  early  stage  of  the  difficulty  the  bowels  are 
loose,  but  soon  constipation  ensues,  and  the  appetite  is 
affected,  the  milk  decreases,  and  the  urine  becomes 
either  very  red  or  sometimes  black. 

The  case  demands  treatment,  for  it  is  apt  to  prey 
upon  the  health  of  the  cow.  Purgatives  are  usually 
employed  with  most  success.  Take  a  pound  of  Epsom 
salts,  half  an  ounce  of  ginger,  and  half  an  ounce  of  car- 
bonate of  ammonia.  Pour  a  quart  of  boiling  water  on 
the  salts  and  ginger,  stir  thoroughly,  and,  when  cold, 
add  the  ammonia.  If  this  fails  to  act  on  the  bowels, 
repeat  a  quarter  part  of  it  every  six  or  eight  hours  till 
it  succeeds.  Then  a  nutritious  diet  should  be  used  till 
the  appetite  is  fully  restored. 


286     HOOSE.  —  INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    LUNGS. 

If  a  cow  is  once  affected  in  this  way,  the  difficulty 
will  be  liable  to  return,  and  she  had  better  be  dis- 
posed of. 

Hoose  is  a  cold  or  cough  to  which  stock  are  subject 
when  exposed  to  wet  weather  and  damp  pastures. 

The  cold  may  not  be  bad  at  first,  or  may  be  so  slight 
as  not  to  attract  attention  ;  but  it  often  leads  to  worse 
complaints,  and  ought,  when  observed,  to  be  attended 
to  at  once,  by  keeping  the  animal  in  a  dry  and  warm 
barn  a  few  days,  and  feeding  with  mashes,  and,  if  it 
continues,  take  an  ounce  of  sweet  spirits  of  nitre  in  a 
pint  of  ginger  tea  ;  mix,  and  give  in  a  quart  of  thick 
gruel. 

No  prudent  farmer  will  neglect  to  observe  approach- 
ing symptoms  of  disease  in  his  stock.  The  cheapest 
way  to  keep  animals  healthy  is  to  treat  them  properly 
in  time,  and  before  disease  is  seated  upon  them.  Hoose 
often  ends  in  consumption  and  death. 

Inflammation  of  the  Glands  often  occurs  in  hoose, 
catarrh,  etc.,  but  they  resume  their  natural  state  when 
these  complaints  are  removed.  The  animal  cannot  swal- 
low without  pain  sometimes,  and  soft  food  should  be 
given.  Remove  the  cause,  and  the  inflammation  ceases. 
Some  make  a  relaxing  poultice  of  marsh-mallows,  or 
similar  substances ;  and  rub  the  throat  with  a  mixture 
of  olive  or  goose  oil  one  gill,  spirit  of  camphor  one 
ounce,  oil  of  cedar  one  ounce,  and  half  a  gill  of  vinegar. 

Inflammation  of  the  Lungs. —  Common  catarrh  <>r 
hoose  sometimes  leads  to  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
which  is  indicated  by  dulness  and  sore  cough.  The 
ears,  the  roots  of  the  horns,  and  legs,  are  sometimes 
cold.  The  breath  is  hot,  as  well  as  the  mouth ;  and  the 
animal  rarely  lies  down,  and  is  reluctant  to  move, 
or  change  its  position.  Warm  water  and  mashes,  or 
gruel,  may  be   given,  and    the   animal    kept   in   a   dry 


DIARRHOEA. — TREATMENT.  287 

place.  The  cause  of  the  complaint  should  be  removed, 
and  the  trouble  will  generally  soon  cease.  The  treat- 
ment is  much  the  same  as  for  fever;  but  where  the 
surface  of  the  body  is  cold,  as  is  generally  the  case, 
give  sweet  spirits  of  nitre  two  ounces,  liquor  acetate 
of  ammonia  four  ounces,  in  a  pint  of  water,  two  or 
three  times  a  day. 

Diarrhoea  is  brought  on  by  too  sudden  change  of 
food,  especially  from  dry  to  green  and  succulent  food  ; 
sometimes  by  poisonous  plants  or  bad  water.  If  slight, 
the  farmer  may  not  be  anxious  to  check  it.  It  may  show 
simply  an  effort  of  nature  to  throw  off  some  injurious 
substances  from  the  body,  and  so  it  may  exist  when  the 
animal  is  quite  healthy.  But,  if  it  continues  too  long, 
and  is  likely  to  debilitate  the  system,  a  mild  purgative 
may  be  given  to  assist  rather  than  check  the  operation 
of  nature.  Half  a  pound  of  Epsom  salts,  with  a  little 
ginger  and  gentian,  will  do  for  a  medium-sized  animal 
in  this  case  ;  but  a  purgative  may  be  followed  in  a  day 
or  two  by  an  astringent  medicine.  Take  prepared  chalk 
two  ounces,  powdered  oak-bark  one  ounce,  powdered 
catechu  two  drachms,  powdered  opium  one  drachm,  and 
four  drachms  powdered  ginger.  Mix  these  together, 
and  give  in  a  quart  of  warm  gruel.  Sometimes  a  few 
ounces  of  pulverized  charcoal  will  arrest  the  diarrhoea. 
Common  diarrhoea  may  be  distinguished  from  dysentery 
by  a  too  abundant  discharge  of  dung  in  too  fluid  a  form, 
or  in  a  full,  almost  liquid  stream,  sometimes  very  offen- 
sive to  the  smell,  and  now  and  then  bloody.  In  dysen- 
tery, the  dung  is  often  mixed  with  mucus  and  blood,  and 
is  not  unfrequently  attended  by  a  hard  straining.  The 
quantity  of  dung  is  less  than  in  diarrhoea,  but  more 
offensive. 

Diarrhoea  may  occur  at  any  season  of  the  year,  and 
sometimes  leads  to  dysentery,  which  more  frequently 
appears  in  the  spring  and  fall. 


288     DYSENTERY.  —  MANGE. — SYMPTOMS. 

Dysentery,  or  scouring  rot,  is  a  dangerous  and  trouble- 
some malady  when  it  becomes  seated. 

The  cow  suffers  from  painful  efforts  to  pass  the  dung, 
which  is  thin,  slimy,  olive-colored,  and  offensive,  and 
after  it  falls  rises  up  in  little  bubbles,  with  a  slimy  sub- 
stance upon  it.  She  is  restless,  lying  down  and  soon 
rising  again,  and  appears  to  be  in  great  distress.  The 
hair  seems  to  stand  out  stiff  from  the  body,  and  this 
stage  of  the  malady  indicates  an  obstinate  and  fatal 
disease. 

It  is  often  brought  on  by  a  simple  cold  at  the  time  of 
calving,  exposure  to  sudden  changes,  and  by  poor  keep- 
ing, which  exhausts  the  system,  especially  in  winter.  A 
dry,  warm  barn,  and  careful  nursing,  will  do  much  ;  and 
dry,  sweet  food,  as  hay,  oat-meal,  boiled  potatoes,  gruel, 
&c.  Some  linseed-meal  is  also  very  good  for  cows  with 
this  complaint.  A  little  gum-arabic  or  starch  may  be 
mixed  with  the  medicine. 

The  treatment  is  much  the  same  as  for  diarrhoea. 

The  Mange  is  commonly  brought  on  by  half  starving 
in  winter,  and  by  keeping  the  cow  in  a  filthy,  ill-ven- 
tilated place.  It  is  contagious,  and  if  one  cow  of  a 
herd  has  it,  the  rest  will  be  apt  to  get  it  also.  Blaine 
says,  "  Mange  has  three  origins,  —  filth,  debility,  and 
contagion."  It  is  a  disgrace  to  the  farmer  to  suffer 
it  to  enter  his  herd  from  either  of  these  causes,  since 
it  shows  a  culpable  neglect  of  his  stock.  I  am  sorry 
to  say  it  is  too  common  in  this  country,  especially 
in  filthy  barns. 

The  cow  afflicted  with  the  mange  is  hide-bound ;  the 
hair  is  dry  and  stiff,  and  comes  off.  She  is  constantly 
rubbing,  and  a  kind  of  white  scurfiness  appears  on  the 
skin.  It  is  most  perceptible  towards  the  latter  part  of 
winter  and  in  spring,  and  thus  too  plainly  tells  the  story 
of  the  winter's  neglect. 


LICE. HOW    TO    DESTROY    THEM.  289 

An  ointment  composed  chiefly  of  sulphur  has  been 
found  most  effectual.  Some  mercurial  ointment  may  be 
added,  if  the  cows  are  kept  housed ;  but,  if  let  out 
during  the  day,  the  quantity  must  be  very  small,  else 
salivation  is  produced  by  their  licking  themselves. 

The  ointment  may  be  made  of  flour  of  sulphur  one 
pound,  strong  mercurial  ointment  two  ounces,  common 
turpentine  one  half-pound,  lard  one  and  a  quarter 
pounds.  Melt  the  turpentine  and  lard  together,  and  stir 
in  the  sulphur  as  they  begin  to  cool  off;  then  rub  down 
the  mercurial  ointment  on  some  hard  substance  with 
the  other  ingredients.  Rub  the  whole  in  with  the  hand, 
and  take  care  to  leave  no  places  untouched,  once  a  day, 
for  three  days ;  and  after  this,  if  any  places  are  left  un- 
cnred,  rub  it  in  over  them.  There  is  no  danger  in  this 
application,  if  the  animal  is  not  exposed  to  severe  cold. 
This  will  be  pretty  sure  to  effect  a  speedy  cure,  if  aided 
by  cleanliness,  pure  air,  and  a  nutritious  diet. 

Another  wash  for  mange  is  the  following:  Pyrolig- 
neous  acid  four  ounces,  water  a  pint ;  mix  and  apply. 

Lice  show  unpardonable  neglect  of  duty  wherever 
they  are  suffered  to  exist.  They  crawl  all  over  the 
stable-floor  and  the  stalls,  on  the  pastures,  and  a  touch 
is  sufficient  to  give  them  to  other  animals.  They 
worry  and  trouble  the  poor  animal  constantly ;  and  no 
thriftiness  can  be  expected  where  they  are  found.  If 
the  mange  ointment  does  not  completely  destroy  them, 
as  it  often  will,  take  bees-wax,  tallow,  and  lard,  in  equal 
parts,  and  rub  it  into  the  hide  in  the  most  thorough  man- 
ner, with  the  hand  or  a  brush,  two  and  a  half  pounds 
for  a  small  cow,  three  pounds  for  a  large  one.  The 
next  day  it  may  be  washed  off  in  soft  soap,  and  the 
lice  will  have  disappeared  from  the  animal,  but  not 
always  from  the  barn.  Some  use  a  wash  of  powdered 
lobelia-seeds  two  ounces,  steeped  in  boiling  water,  and 
25  19 


290  WARBLES. — LOSS     OF     CUD. 

applied  with  a  sponge.  Others  hang  up  tobacco-leaves 
over  the  stalls.  This  may  do  to  keep  them  away  ;  but 
after  the  animal  is  covered  with  them,  they  are  not  so 
easily  scared. 

Warbles.  —  The  gad-fly  is  very  troublesome  to  cattle 
towards  the  end  of  summer.  The  fly  alights  on  the  back 
of  the  cow,  punctures  the  skin,  and  lays  her  eggs  under 
it.  A  tumor  is  now  formed,  varying  in  size,  which  soon 
bursts  and  leaves  a  small  hole  for  the  grub  already 
hatched  to  breathe  through.  Here  the  insect  feeds  on 
its  surroundings,  and  grows  up  to  considerable  size. 
All  this  time  the  animal  is  probably  suffering  more  or 
less  pain,  and  often  tries  to  lick  or  rub  the  part  affected, 
if  possible.  Farmers  often  press  them  out  with  the  fin- 
ger and  thumb.  The  best  way  is  to  puncture  the  skin 
with  a  common  pen-knife,  and  then  press  out  the 
grub.  They  injure  the  hide  more  than  most  people  are 
aware  of. 

Loss  OF  Cud  is  a  consequence  of  indigestion,  and  is 
often  brought  on  by  eating  too  greedily  of  food  which 
the  cow  is  not  used  to.  Loss  of  cud  and  loss  of  appetite 
are  synon}Tmous.  Gentle  purgatives  may  be  given, 
with  such  as  salts,  ginger,  and  sulphur.  But  when  a  cow 
is  surfeited,  as  already  said,  I  should  prefer  to  withhold 
food  entirely,  or  for  the  most  part,  till  the  system  can 
regulate  itself. 

Diseases  of  Calves.  —  The  colostrum,  or  first  milk  of 
the  cow  after  calving,  contains  medicinal  qualities  pecu- 
liarly adapted  to  cleanse  the  young  calf,  and  free  its 
bowels  from  the  matter  always  existing  in  them  at  birth. 
This  should,  therefore,  never  be  denied  it.  Bleeding 
at  the  navel,  with  which  calves  are  sometimes  seriously 
troubled,  may  generally  and  safely  be  stopped  by  tying 
a  string  around  the  cord  which  hangs  suspended 
from  it. 


DISEASES    OF    CALVES. SCOURS.  291 

But  Diarrhoea,  Purging,  or  Scours,  is  the  most  dan- 
gerous complaint  with  which  calves  are  afflicted.  This 
is  caused  often  by  neglect,  or  exposure  to  wet  and  cold, 
or  insufficiency  of  food  at  one  time  and  over-feeding  at 
another.  Stinting  the  calf  in  food  or  attention  will  often 
involve  the  loss  of  considerable  profit  on  the  cow  for 
the  year.  When  purging  is  once  fully  seated  from 
several  days'  neglect,  it  is  often  difficult  to  remove  it. 

The  acidity  on  the  stomach  which  always  attends  it 
must  first  be  removed.  A  mild  purgative  medicine  may 
be  given.  Rhubarb  and  magnesia  is  a  very  convenient 
article,  and  may  easily  be  given  in  ounce  doses  along 
with  the  milk.  Potash  is  also  to  be  given  in  quarter- 
ounce  doses  in  the  same  way.  Two  ounces  of  castor- 
oil,  or  two  ounces  of  Epsom  salts,  might  be  given  with 
the  desired  effect.  After  this,  mild  astringents  may  be 
given.  Take  prepared  chalk  two  drachms,  or  magnesia 
one  ounce,  powdered  opium  ten  grains,  powdered  cate- 
chu half  a  drachm,  tincture  of  capsicum  two  drachms, 
essence  of  peppermint  five  drops.  Mix  together,  and 
give  twice  a  day  in  the  milk  or  gruel. 

After  giving  the  above  repeatedly  without  effect, 
which  will  rarely  happen,  take  Dover's  powders  two 
scruples,  starch  or  arrow-root  powdered  one  ounce, 
cinnamon  powder  one  drachm,  and  powdered  kino 
half  a  drachm.  Boil  the  starch  or  arrow-root  in  water 
till  it  thickens,  and  when  cold  stir  in  the  other  ingre- 
dients. Give  night  and  morning.  This  complaint  is 
often  attended  by  inflammation  of  the  bowels  and 
general  fever. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  a  lump  of  chalk  constantly 
before  calves  after  they  are  two  or  three  weeks  old. 
It  corrects  acidity  on  the  stomach,  and  is  otherwise 
useful  to  them. 

Constipation  or  Costtveness  sometimes  attacks  calves 


292  COSTIVENESS. HOOVE.  —  CANKER. 

a  few  days  old,  that  have  not  been  judiciously  managed. 
It  may  be  brought  on  by  putting  a  calf  to  a  cow  whose 
milk  is  too  old,  or  from  feeding  a  calf  from  the  milk  of 
several  cows  mixed.  It  results  from  too  heavy  a  mass 
of  coagulated  milk  in  the  fourth  stomach,  which  becomes 
very  much  swollen  with  hard  curd.  It  is  difficult  to 
remedy.  The  best  way  is  to  pour  down  some  Epsom 
salts,  two  ounces,  dissolved  in  two  quarts  of  warm 
water,  by  means  of  a  horn  or  bottle,  and  follow  this  by 
half  the  dose  every  six  hours. 

Constipation  sometimes  appears  in  calves  from  two 
to  four  months  old,  when  their  food  is  too  suddenly 
changed.  The  bowels  must  be  opened  and  the  hardened 
mass  in  the  stomach  softened  very  soon,  or  it  will  lead 
to  fatal  consequences. 

Farmers  are  generally  very  careless  about  observing 
these  things  till  it  is  too  late.  As  already  said,  preven- 
tion is  cheaper  than  cure  ;  but,  if  the  complaint  once 
appears,  no  time  should  be  lost  to  administer  a  purge 
of  salts  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal  or  the 
severity  of  the  attack.  Many  a  valuable  animal  will  be 
saved  by  it. 

The  Hoove  often  appears  among  calves  after  being 
turned  out  to  pasture.  The  young  animal  coughs  vio- 
lently, and  appears  in  pain.  It  should  be  removed  at 
once  to  a  dry  place,  and  physicked.  If  taken  in  season, 
it  is  easily  cured.  If  neglected,  it  will  often  prove  fatal. 
This  complaint  assumes  the  form  of  an  epidemic  at  times, 
and  becomes  very  prevalent  and  troublesome. 

Calves  sometimes  suffer  from  Canker  in  the  Mouth, 
especiafly  at  the  time  of  teething.  The  gums  swell, 
and  fe.ver  sets  in.  Common  alum  or  borax,  dissolved  in 
water,  may  be  applied,  and  a  mild  purgative  admin- 
istered, in  the  shape  of  one  or  two  ounce  doses  of 
Epsom  salts. 


THE    MEDICINES    AT    HAND.  293 

The  diseases  and  complaints  mentioned  above  are 
nearly  all  that  afflict  our  dairy  stock  ;  and  the  list  at 
least  includes  all  the  common  diseases  and  their  treat- 
ment. Some  of  the  diseases  and  epidemics  from  which 
the  cattle  of  Great  Britain  and  other  countries  suffer 
are  not  known  at  all  here,  or  are  of  so  very  rare  occur- 
rence as  not  to  have  attracted  attention;  and  among 
these  may  be  named  pleuro-pneuinonia,  typhus  fever, 
cow-pox,  and  various  epidemics  which  have  from  time  to 
time  decimated  the  cattle  of  all  Europe.  To  accidents 
of  various  kinds,  to  wounds,  trouble  with  the  eyes,  and 
to  lameness  from  other  causes  than  those  named,  they 
are,  indeed,  more  or  less  subject ;  but  no  work  could 
anticipate  or  cover  the  treatment  best  in  every  case, 
and  much  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  owner. 

I  have  tried  to  make  this  chapter,  which  I  consider 
one  of  the  most  important  of  any  to  the  dairy  farmer,  of 
practical  value  to  every  one  who  owns  or  has  the  care  of 
a  cow.  But,  lest  a  want  of  familiarity  with  some  of  the 
medicines  recommended  for  particular  diseases,  or  the 
fear  of  the  expense  of  procuring  and  keeping  them  on 
hand,  should  deter  some  one  from  providing  himself 
with  a  good  medicine-chest,  I  wish  to  remind  the  reader 
that  no  small  portion  of  them  are  always  to  be  found  in 
every  well-regulated  household,  and  that  the  others  are 
obtained  at  so  little  expense  that  no  one  need  be  with- 
out them  for  a  single  day. 

Let  us  see,  for  instance,  how  many  of  them  are  at 
hand.  But  few  families  are  destitute  of  a  supply  of 
ginger,  camphor,  red  pepper,  lard,  molasses,  cinnamon, 
peppermint,  starch,  turpentine,  tallow,  bees-wax,  bur- 
dock, and  caraway-seed.  The  farmer's  wife  or  daughter 
will  generally  have  a  supply  of  ammonia  or  hartshorn. 

Now,  I  wish  to  suggest  to  the  farmer  or  dairyman 
who  happens  to  live  at  a  distance  from  the  apothecary 
25* 


5* 

294  COST     OF     MEDICINE-CHEST. 

to  provide  himself  with  a  convenient  little  medicine 
chest,  and  put  into  it  say  four  times  the  quantities  of 
the  various  medicine*  which  are  mentioned  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages,  carefully  bottled  and  labelled  for  use.  To 
aid  in  this  simple  plan,  which  might  be  the  means  of 
saving  an  animal  worth  twenty  times  its  cost,  I  have 
obtained,  from  a  ivJwlesale  druggist,  about  the  average 
cost  of  the  following  quantities  and  kinds  of  medicines, 
which  include  all,  or  nearly  all,  that  would  be  likely  to 
be  needed:  Five  pounds  of  Epsom  salts,  .18;  one  pint  of 
castor-oil,  .25  ;  one  pint  of  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  .19 ; 
one  pound  of  powdered  nitrate  of  potash,  .20  ;  one 
pound  carbonate  of  ammonia,  .23  ;  one  half-pound  sal 
ammoniac,  .08 ;  one  pint  of  tincture  of  red  pepper  (hot 
drops),  .37  ;  one  ounce  of  hydriodate  of  potash,  .30  ; 
one  pound  chloride  of  lime,  .10;  one  pound  sulphate  of 
iron,  .10  ;  2  pounds  powdered  sulphur,  .16;  one  pint  of 
tincture  of  ginger,  37  ;  one  quart  of  essence  of  anise- 
seed,  .50  ;  one  half-pound  sulphuric  ether,  .20 ;  one 
half-pound  powdered  sassafras-bark,  .20  ;  one  quarter- 
pound  magnesia,  .06 ;  one  quarter-pound  rhubarb,  .30 
(the  common  will  answer  instead  of  prepared)  ;  one 
ounce  powdered  opium,  .43;  one  quarter-pound  catechu, 
.06  ;  one  ounce  Dover's  powders,  .25  ;  2  ounces  gum 
kino,  .05  ;  one  half-pound  mercurial  ointment,  .37J  ;  and 
one  pound  aloes,  .25.  Then  keep  in  the  chest  a  good  pro- 
bang,  which  is  a  flexible  tube  made  for  the  purpose,  and 
is  much  safer  and  better  for  introducing  into  the  throat 
or  gullet  of  an  animal  than  a  common  whip-stick,  which 
some  use.  This  costs  about  $3.50,  and  can  be  pro- 
cured at  almost  any  veterinary  surgeon's.  This  whole 
chest  and  contents  will  cost  less  than  ten  dollars. 

Let  the  farmer  also  become  familiar  with  the  structure 
and  anatomy  of  his  animals.  It  will  open  a  wide  field 
of  useful  and  interesting  investigation. 


CHAPTEE  XI. 

THE    DAIRY    HUSBANDRY    OP    HOLLAND. 

This  chapter  I  translate  from  an  admirable  little  work  in  German, 
"  Die  Hollandische  Rindviehzucht  und  Milchwirthschaft  in  Konigreich 
Holland,''''  by  Ellerbrock,  a  distinguished  veterinary  surgeon,  pro- 
fessor of  cattle  pathology  and  cattle-breeding  in  the  Agricultural 
Institute  at  Zeyst,  in  Holland. 


Milking  and  Treatment  of  Milk.  —  The  cows  are 
turned  to  pasture  early  in  spring,  and  stay  there  day 
and  night  throughout  the  pasture-season.  They  are 
milked  daily  in  a  particular  part  of  the  lot  called  the 
milk-yard.  This  is  kept  in  some  instances  permanently 
in  the  same  place ;  in  others,  it  is  changed  about  at 
pleasure.  A  shady  part  of  the  pasture  is  generally 
selected,  and  it  is  commonly  enclosed  with  a  board  fence. 
The  cows  are  driven  into  this  yard  to  be  milked,  when 
not  already  there  at  the  usual  time.     The  milking  is 

done  by  male  and  female  do- 
mestics, who  carry  their  pails, 
cans,  and  dishes,  hung  on  a 
z?  kind  of  wooden  yoke,  Fig. 
84,  neatly  cut  out,  painted, 
Fis-84-  and    set   with    copper   nails.. 

This  is  swung  over  the  shoulders,  or  else  the  dairy 
utensils  are  carried  on  donkeys,  ponies,  or  hand-carts  ; 
or,  where  there  is  water  communication,  in  boats,  twice 
a  day,  to  the  yard. 


296 


THE    DUTCH    DAIRY. 


In  the  larger  dairies  the  utensils  in  common  use  are 
small  wooden  pails,  Fig.  85,  painted  in  variegated  colors, 
with  bright  brazen  or  iron  hoops,  and  neatly  washed  ; 
a  strainer,  Fig.  86,  made  of  horse-hair ;  a  large  wooden 


Fig.  85.  Fig.  86.  Fig.  87. 

tunnel,  Fig.   87,  for  pouring   the   milk   into    the    cans 
and  casks :   one  or  more  buckets,  Fig.   88,  usually  of 


brass,  lined  with  tin,  large  enough  to  hold  the  milk  ol 
several  cows  together,  or  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
quarts.  In  many  dairies  they  have  wooden  buckets, 
Fig.  89,  painted  green  or  blue  outside,  with  black  stripes, 
and  with  iron  or  brass  handles,  kept  very  bright.  Here 
the  buckets  are  coated  over  inside  with  white  oil-colors. 
These  are  borne  by  the  yoke  (Fig.  84),  or  in  some  of 
the  ways  indicated  above. 

In  many  places,  instead  of  buckets  for  keeping  the 
milk  together,  they  use  copper  or  brass  cans  lined  inside 
with  tin,  and  in  the  form  of  antique  vases  or  large 
beer-jugs,  Figs.  90  and  91,  which  are  constantly  kept 
brightly  polished.  In  other  places,  they  use  for  hold- 
ing the  milk  smaller  or  larger  barrels,  Fig.  92,  with 
broad  hoops  also  kept  constantly  polished. 


THE    DAIRY    UTENSILS. 


297 


Instead  of  the  yoke  a  soft  cushion  is  also  used,  which 
the  daiiwmaids  strap  over  their  backs,  so  that  they  hang 


Fig.  90.  Fig.  91.  Fig.  92. 

down  and  rest  over  the  hips  and  thighs.  On  this  cush- 
ion the  cans  are  laid,  and  fastened  with  broad  hempen 
straps,  that  they  may  not  press  too  heavily  upon  the 
body.  This  band  is  called  the  milk-strap.  Where  the 
milk  is  carried  home  on  a  hand-cart,  neatly-woven 
baskets  are  fastened  upon  little  wagons  in  which  the 
cans  are  placed.  If  it  is  to  be  carried  in  casks,  the  same 
arrangement  is  fixed  upon  a  hand-cart.  Two  wooden 
floats  are  laid  upon  the  milk  in  the  buckets,  in  order  to 
protect  it  from  slopping  over.  One  or  more  large  milk- 
casks  or  tubs,  in  which  it  may  cool  off  properly,  are  also 
used.  The  size  of  these  tubs  io  different,  as  well  as  the 
materials  of  which  they  are  made.  Where  the  cooling 
is  not  left  to  the  air  alone,  but  is  sought  to  be  effected 
by  hanging  the  milk-tub  into  cold  water,  the  vessels  are 
made  of  metal.  The  large  vase-like  jars  are  also  used 
for  this  purpose.  These  hold  about  thirty  cans,  or 
twenty-six  quarts.  Wooden  bowls  are  used,  of  different 
sizes  and  forms,  and  earthen  pans,  rather  deeper  than 
broad,  Figs.  93  and  94,  in  which  the  milk  as  it  cools  is 


298 


THE     MILKING. 


set  for  the  cream  to  rise.  A  large  pot  for  collecting  the 
cream  until  there  is  enough  to  churn,  and  wooden  skim- 
mers for  taking  off  the  cream,  are  also  used.    The  milker 


sits  upon  a  common  four-legged,  and  sometimes  one- 
legged  milking-stool,  and  milks  either  the  teats  on  one 
side,  or  one  hind  and  one  front  teat,  the  pail  being 
held  between  the  knees.  The  cows  are  milked  regu- 
larly at  four  or  five  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  at  five 
or  six  in  the  afternoon. 

In  West  Friesland,  North  and  South  Holland,  Utrecht, 
and  other  places,  it  is  customary  to  tie  the  tail  to  the 
leg  of  the  cow,  that  she  may  not  annoy  the  milker. 
Most  cows  do  not  resist  this,  being  accustomed  "to  it 
from  the  beginning.     They  also  pass  a  cord  around  the 


Fig.  95 


horns  and  tie  her  to  a  post  stuck  in  the  ground  during 
the  milking,  as  in  Fig.  95.  In  many  provinces  only  the 
unruly  cows  are  tied  in  this  way. 

The  milking  takes  place  on  the  right  side  of  the  cow, 


THE    PRACTICE    IN    WINTER.  29D 

so  that  the  milker  sits  on  this  side.  In  West  Friesland 
and  North  Holland  there  is  an  exception  to  this  rule. 
The  cows  are  tied  in  pairs  in  the  stalls,  and  one  is 
milked  on  one  side  and  the  other  on  the  other,  the 
milker  sitting  with  his  back  to  the  board  partition,  to 
avoid  annoyance  from  either  animal. 

When  the  milking  is  ended  the  milk  is  poured 
through  the  hair  strainer  into  the  bucket,  or  through  a 
strainer  or  tunnel  in  the  cans  or  casks,  whichever  are 
used.  The  milk  is  taken  to  the  dairy-house,  without 
delay,  in  some  of  the  ways  already  mentioned.  When 
the  yoke  is  used,  one  bucket  is  hung  on  the  right  side 
and  another  on  the  left,  each  with  a  float  on  the  top  of 
the  milk  to  keep  it  from  slopping  over.  The  large 
metallic  milk-cans,  with  wooden  stoppers,  are  borne 
home  on  the  cushions  already  described  as  being  held 
by  shoulder-knots  strapped  round  the  waist.  The 
mode  of  transportation  depends  much  on  the  distance 
from  the  dairy-house  and  the  quantity  to  be  carried. 

In  winter,  when  the  cows  are  in  the  barn,  they  are 
likewise  milked  twice  a  day,  and  the  milk  is  at  once 
strained  through  the  hair  strainer  into  casks  made  for 
the  purpose.  These  implements  differ  according  to  the 
object  pursued  in  the  dairy;  yet  pans  and  pots  are 
mostly  used  for  raising  the  cream  to  be  made  into 
butter,  since  but  few  dairymen  make  cheese  in  winter. 

All  utensils  necessary  for  milking,  the  preservation 
of  milk,  and  the  making  of  butter  and  cheese,  are  kept 
with  the  utmost  neatness.  Where  a  stream  of  running 
water  flows  through  the  yard,  the  implements  are  gene- 
rally washed  in  that,  and  flowing  water  is  preferred  for 
the  purpose.  But  where  the  farm  or  dairy-house 
stands  at  a  distance  from  a  stream,  a  shallow  fountain, 
or  basin,  is  dug  out  in  the  earth,  walled  up,  and  so 
arranged  that  the  water  can  be  taken  from  it  and  fresh 


300  CLEANLINESS    EXEMPLIFIED. 

water  substituted  when  it  gets  impure.  In  such  a 
basin,  or  in  flowing  water,  all  new  wooden  dairy  uten- 
sils aie  soaked  for  a  long  time  before  being  used;  but 
those  in  daily  use  are  washed,  rinsed,  and  scoured  out 
with  ashes,  with  the  greatest  care.  None  but  cold, 
clear,  fresh  fountain  or  flowing  water  is  taken  for  cleans- 
ing dairy  implements.  It  is  to  be  observed  that,  in 
large  dairies,  the  use  of  water  which  is  covered  with 
newly-fallen  honey-dew,  for  washing  the  dairy  utensils, 
is  carefully  avoided.  When  the  milk-vessels  have  been 
perfectly  rinsed  out  in  fresh  water,  they  are,  in  many 
dairies,  put  into  a.  large  kettle  of  water  over  the  fire, 
and  properly  scalded  ;  after  which  they  are  again  cleanly 
washed  with  cold  water,  so  that  not  the  least  particle 
of  milk  or  impurity  is  to  be  seen,  nor  the  least  smell  of 
it  to  be  observed.  The  metallic  milk-vessels  and  the 
metal  parts  of  the  wooden  ones  are  cleansed  with  equal 
care  and  exactness,  and  kept  polished.  Dairymaids 
feel  a  pride  in  always  having  the  brightest,  most 
polished,  and  cleanest  utensils,  and  each  strives  earnestly 
to  excel  the  others  in  this  respect. 

When  the  milk-vessels  are  scoured,  scalded,  and 
rinsed  perfectly  clean,  they  are  hung  on  a  stand  of 
laths  and  poles,  made  for  the  purpose,  to  be  properly 
dried.  The  round  wooden  milk-bowls,  being  made  of 
one  piece,  are  very  easily  broken  or  split,  and  must  be 
handled  with  very  great  care  in  cleaning.  To  avoid 
breaking,  a  peculiar  table  is  used  for  scouring  them. 

The  Dutch  dahyman  knows  perfectly  well  that  his 
dairy  can  secure  him  the  highest  profit  only  when  the 
utmost  cleanliness  is  the  basis  and  groundwork  of  his 
whole  business  ;  and  so  he  keeps,  with  the  most  extraor- 
dinary carefulness,  and  even  with  anxiety,  the  great- 
est possible  neatness  in  all  parts  of  the  dairy  establish- 
ment. 


the  yield   op  dutch  cows.  301 

Determination  of  the  Milking  Qualities  of  the 
Cows.  —  The  Dutch  cattle  are,  in  general,  renowned 
for  their  dairy  qualities ;  but  especially  so  are  the  cows 
of  North  Holland,  which  not  only  give  a  large  quantity, 
but  also  a  very  good  quality,  so  that  a  yield  of  sixteen 
to  twenty-five  cans*  at  every  milking  is  not  rare.  Next 
to  these  come  the  West  Friesland  and  South  Dutch 
cows,  from  which  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  cans  of 
milk  may  be  calculated  on.  Though  one  could  not 
take  a  certain  number  and  calculate  surely  what  the 
yield  of  each  cow  would  be,  yet  he  could  come  very 
near  the  truth  if  he  reckoned  that  a  cow,  in  three  hun- 
dred days,  or  as  long  as  she  is  milked,  gives,  on  an 
average,  daily,  from  six  to  eight  cans  of  milk,  from 
which  the  whole  annual  yield  would  be  from  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  to  two  thousand  four  hundred 
cans.  Of  this  the  cow  gives  one  half  in  the  first  four 
months,  one  third  in  the  next  three,  and  in  the 
remainder  one  sixth.  These  superficial  results  cannot 
be  taken,  however,  as  the  fixed  rule.. 

Professor  Wilkins,  in  his  Handbook  of  Agriculture, 
gives  the  following  estimates  of  the  yield  of  milk:  A 
good  West  Friesland  or  Groningen  cow  will,  after  calv- 
ing, give  daily  fourteen  quarts  of  milk.  This  will,  after 
a  while,  be  reduced  to  eight  quarts.  She  may  be  milked 
three  hundred  and  twenty-three  days  in  the  year,  and 
her  product  in  butter  and  cheese  will  amount  to  one 
hundred  guldens. 

In  Prof.  Kop's  Magazine  it  is  stated  that  a  medium- 
*ized  Friesland  cow,  which  had  had  several  calves,  was 
giving  daily,  on  good  feed,  five  and  a  half  to  six  buckets, 
or  from  twenty  to  twenty-two  cans,  and  over.  In  South 
Holland,  also,  this  quantity  is   considered  a  good  yield 

*  A  Dutch  can  is  a  little  less  than  our  wine  quart. 

26 


302  TREATMENT     OF     MILK. 

of  a  cow.  Of  the  cows  of  Gelderland,  Overyssel,  and 
Utrecht,  the  yield  cannot  be  reckoned  higher  than  six- 
teen cans  daily,  and  that  only  during  the  first  half  of 
their  milking  season. 

Treatment  of  Milk  for  Butter.  —  To  get  good 
butter  it  is  quite  necessary  that  the  fresh  milk  be 
properly  cooled  before  it  is  set  for  cream.  In  the  great 
dairies  of  North  and  South  Holland,  which  not  only 
possess  the  best  cattle,  but  may  be  given  as  models  in 
dairy  husbandry,  they  manage  as  follows  : 

The  milk,  as  it  is  brought  from  the  pasture,  is  poured 
from  the  buckets,  cans,  and  casks,  through  a  hair 
strainer,  into  one  vessel,  the  milk-kettle.  These  milk- 
kettles  are  not  everywhere  of  the  same  size,  or  of  simi- 
lar form,  but  are  always  riveted  together  with  strong 
brass  or  copper  bands,  and  lined  with  tin  inside.  The 
most  common  milk-kettles  hold  sixteen  cans  ;  yet  they 
are  found  so  large  as  to  hold  three  barrels,  or  about  six 
hundred  quarts.  The  peculiar  kettle  form  is  very  rarely 
found,  but  more  frequently  the  cylindrical,  or  vase- 
shaped.  They  are  held  either  by  two  handles  or  one. 
The  number  required  depends  on  the  number  of  cows 
and  the  quantity  of  milk  expected. 

The  milk-kettles,  when  filled,  are  set  into  a  basin 
with  cold  water,  called  the  cool-bath,  for  the  purpose  of 
cooling  the  milk.  The  cool-bath  is  frequently  in  the 
kitchen,  sometimes  in  the  bauer-house,  so  called,  or 
directly  before  the  cow-room,  near  the  spring.  The 
latter  is  the  most  common  and  the  most  convenient 
place.  The  water  reservoir  is  dug  in  the  ground,  and 
an  oblong  four-cornered  form  is  preferred  for  it ;  the 
sides  of  the  excavation  being  walled  up  with  hard-burnt 
building-stones  and  cement,  but  the  bottom  is  laid  in 
tiles,  either  red,  hard-burnt,  or  white  glazed.  Richer 
dairvmen  take  finely-hewn  blue  stone  or  white  marble 


THE     COOL-BATH. 


303 


for  it.  The  size  of  the  reservoir  is  governed  by  the 
number  of  milk-kettles  to  be  put  into  it,  and  so  is  its 
depth  by  their  height,  so  that  the  rim  of  the  kettle  is  on 
a  level  with  the  top  of  the  cool-bath,  Fig.  96.  The 
sides  of  the  cool-bath  in  the 
kitchen  project  some  feet  over 
the  floor,  yet  are  not  so  high 
that  the  setting  in  and  taking 
out   the   milk-kettle   will   be    at- 


Pig  96.     Cool-bath. 

tended  with  ^reat  inconvenience  and  trouble.  Where 
it  is  desired  to  make  the  work  of  setting  in  or  raising 
up  the  milk-kettles  from  the  cool-bath  as  easy  as  pos- 
sible, a  beam  is  fixed  along  the  side  of  the  trough,  and 
iron  props  are  firmly  fixed,  which  extend  out  a  little 
over  the  edge  of  the  trough,  half-way  down  from  the 
beam.  On  these  the  operator  can  support  himself  in 
lowering  or  raising  heavy  vessels.  These  stays,  or 
props,  are  sometimes  fixed  directly  into  the  wall,  along 


304 


THE    BATH    IN     THE    BARN. 


which  the  cool-bath  stands.  Under  the  bottom  of  the 
reservoir,  on  the  other  side  from  where  the  water 
comes  in,  is  an  outlet,  stopped  with  a  tap  or  faucet,  to 
let  off  the  water. 

The  cool-baths  in  the  kitchen  are,  for  the  most  part, 
on  the  floor,  and  extend  up  a  convenient  height ;  whilst 
those  in  the  cow-barns,  as  a  general  rule,  are  dug  down 
and  walled  up,  and  their  top  is  fastened  to  the  floor  of 
the  barn.  They  are  deep  enough  to  allow  the  water 
for  cooling  the  milk  to  come  up  to  the  rim  of  the  milk- 


Fig.  97.    Cool-bath 


kettle ;  but,  in  order  to  prevent  men  and  cattle  from 
tailing  in,  it  is  covered  with  a  strong  wooden  lid  to 
shut  down,  as  in  Fig.  97. 


THE    TIME    OF    COOLING.  305 

Such  a  cool-bath  is  used  in  the  cow-room  only  in 
summer,  when  the  heat  is  so  great  that  it  is  difficult  to 
keep  the  milk  cool  in  the  kitchen.  The  cool-bath  in  the 
cow-room  is  considered  as  only  an  auxiliary  to  that  in 
the  kitchen,  and  to  be  used  only  in  case  of  necessity. 
The  milk-kettles  are  hung  by  their  handles,  and  let 
down  by  means  of  a  crank.  When  the  platform  is  not 
in  use  it  is  taken  away  from  the  cool-bath,  and  the  cover 
is  let  down  and  kept  closed. 

The  milk  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  cool-bath  until 
the  froth  has  disappeared,  and  there  is  no  difference  in 
temperature  between  the  water  and  the  milk.  The 
milk  of  one  milking  must  give  place  for  the  next,  so 
that  it  will  be  changed  twice  daily,  morning  and  even- 
ing. A  very  great  importance  vs,  everywhere  in  the 
Dutch  dairies,  attached  to  this  rapid  cooling  of  the 
milk,  because  it  is  known  by  experience  that  it  is  thus 
greatly  protected  from  turning  sour.* 

The  milk,  when  properly  cooled,  is  brought  to  the 
milk-cellar,  where  it  is  immediately  poured  out  of 
the  milk-kettles  into  vessels  designed  to  receive  it. 
Wooden  bowls  or  pans,  or  high  earthen  pots,  are  used 
for  holding  it.  The  pans  and  pots  are  set  on  the  table, 
and  a  small  ladder,  or  hand-barrow,  is  laid  on  them,  on 
which  is  placed  the  strainer,  when  the  milk  is  poured 
from  the  kettles.  The  wooden  milk-pans  are  of  several 
forms,  generally  made  of  ash  or  of  linden,  and  oval. 
They  are,  on  an  average,  three  and  a  half  feet  long,  and 
half  a  foot  broad,  more  or  less  ;  but  their  dimensions 
vary. 

*  It  will  be  perceived  that  the  arrangement  for  cooling  the  milk  before 
setting  in  the  pans,  in  the  Dutch  dairies,  is  very  elaborate.  I  have  fol- 
lowed the  original  in  translating  the  above,  though  the  practice  in  Hol- 
land differs  widely  from  our  own  in  this  respect,  and  from  that  recom- 
mended in  the  preceding  pages.  The  point  may  be  worthy  of  careful 
experiment.  — Translator. 

26*  20 


306  DEPTH    IN    THE     PANS. 

It  has  been  found,  by  experience,  that  the  flatter  and 
shallower  the  pans,  the  quicker  and  better  the  cream 
rises.  The  milk-pots  are  pretty  large,  but  are  rather 
shallow  than  deep,  glazed  inside,  of  different  forms,  and 
different  capacities  ;  but  they  are  always  broader  on  the 
top  than  at  the  bottom,  though  they  stand  firmly  on  a 
round,  broad  foot-piece.  Milk  pans  and  pots  are  rinsed 
with  cold  water  before  the  milk  is  poured  into  them. 
When  properly  cleaned  and  filled,  they  are  placed  on 
shelves  made  for  the  purpose,  in  regular  rows.  These 
shelves  are  only  a  few  feet  high  above  the  floor  of  the 
cellar,  and  of  suitable  width ;  but,  if  there  is  not  space 
enough  for  the  milk,  the  pans  are  placed  on  the  bottom 
of  the  cellar.  The  pots  are  also  set  along  the  walls,  on 
firm  board  shelves. 

The  milk-cellar,  or  rather  the  milk-room,  Fig.  98,  in 
the  North  and  South  Dutch  dairies,  is  placed  on  the 
Qorth  side  of  the  house,  next  to  the  kitchen,  but  a  little 
lower  than  the  latter,  so  that  there  are  usually  three 
steps  down.  The  longer  side,  facing  towards  the 
north,  has  one  window,  whilst  the  gable  end,  with  its 
two  windows,  faces  towards  the  west.  The  windows 
are  generally  kept  shut,  and  are  open  only  nights  in 
summer.  The  cellar  is  either  arched  or  covered  with 
strongly-boarded  rafters,  over  which  the  so-called 
cellar-chamber  is  situated.  The  floor  of  this  room  is 
laid  in  lime  or  cement,  with  red  or  blue  burnt  tiles,  so 
that  nothing  can  pass  down  through  into  the  milk-cellar. 
In  the  cellar  itself  are  the  above-mentioned  shelves  and 
platforms  for  the  milk-vessels  along  the  walls,  while 
outside,  in  front  of  the  cellar,  linden  and  juniper  trees 
are  planted,  to  prevent  as  much  as  possible  the  heat  of 
the  sun  from  striking  upon  the  walls.  Cleanliness,  the 
fundamental  principle  of  Dutch  dairy  husbandry,  is 
carried  to  its  utmost  extent  in  the  cellar.     Barrels  of 


DUTCH    DAIRY-ROOM. 


307 


308  TIME    FOR    THE    CREAM    TO     RISE. 

meat,  bacon,  vegetables  of  every  kind,  and  everything 
which  could  possibly  create  a  strong  odor  and  infect 
the  air,  or  impart  a  flavor  to  the  milk,  butter,  or  cheese, 
are  carefully  excluded. 

The  vessels  in  which  the  milk  is  set  remain  standing 
undisturbed  in  their  places,  that  the  formation  of  cream 
may  go  on  without  interruption.  Twenty-four  hours, 
on  an  average,  are  thought  to  be  necessary  for  the  milk 
to  stand,  during  which  time  the  cream  is  twice  taken 
off,  once  at  the  end  of  each  twelve  hours.  The  morn- 
ing's milk  is  skimmed  in  the  evening,  and  the  evening's 
on  the  next  morning.  But  the  milk  always  remains 
quite  still  till  the  dairymaid  thinks  it  time  to  skim, 
which  she  decides  by  the  taste.  Long  practice  enables 
her  to  judge  with  great  certainty  by  this  mode  of  trial. 
When  the  cream  is  ripe  it  is  taken  off 
by  the  dairymaid  with  a  shallow  wooden 
skimmer,  Fig.  99,  in  the  form  of  a  deep 
plate,  and  carefully  placed  in  a  particular 
Fi-.  99.  vessel  —  a    bucket    or    cream-pot.      The 

cream-pot  is  generally  washed  very  clean, 
the  staves  very  finely  polished,  striped  with  blue  or 
white  outside,  and  held  together  by  broad  brass  or 
copper  hoops,  kept  very  bright.  For  closing  the  jar 
they  use  an  ashen  cover,  which  is  either  simply  laid 
on  by  a  common  handle,  or  sometimes  held  on  by 
brass  or  copper  hinges.  Both  cream-pot  and  cover 
are  always  scoured  quite  white  and  clean.  The  cream 
remains  there  till  enough  is  got  for  churning,  or  till 
it  becomes  of  itself  thick  enough  for  butter.  It  is 
known  to  be  of  the  proper  consistence  for  butter  when 
a  long,  slender,  wooden  spoon,  thrust  down  into  it,  will 
stand  erect.  When  in  summer  the  cream  does  not  get 
thick  enough  in  season,  they  seek  to  hasten  it  by 
putting  in  a  little  butter-milk ;  but  in  winter  the  ripen- 


METHODS     OF    CHURNING.  309 

ing  of  the  cream  is  hastened  by  warming,  either  by 
holding  the  cream-pot  over  a  coal-pan,  or  on  a  hearth- 
plate. 

The  remainder,  the  skim-milk  from  the  milk  bowls 
or  pans,  sour  milk,  or  butter-milk,  is  poured  into  a  par- 
ticular vessel,  and  made  into  spice-cheese. 

Besides  the  methods  here  described  for  keeping  milk 
for  butter,  milk  is  used  for  other  purposes.  Sweet 
milk  cheese  is  made  of  the  unskimmed  milk :  cream  is 
used  in  the  house  for  coffee.  Rennet  is  also  added  to 
fresh  milk,  and  the  product  is  immediately  sold,  being 
greatly  relished  by  many.  From  skim-milk  and  butter- 
milk put  together  is  made  an  article  called  kramery, 
by  cooking  the  mixture,  putting  it  into  a  linen  bag, 
and  hanging  it  in  a  cool  part  of  the  milk-cellar,  or  else- 
where, when  the  liquid  drops  out  and  leaves  a  mass  of 
considerable  consistence,  called  Hangebast. 

As  soon  as  the  milk  is  taken  from  the  vessels,  they 
are  taken  out  of  the  cellar  and  carefully  cleansed  and 
dried  before  being  used  again. 

Methods  of  Churning.  —  Churning  is  the  principal 
operation  in  the  manufacture  of  butter,  for  by  it  the 
fatty  particles  are  separated  from  the  other  constitu- 
ents. There  are  several  methods  in  Holland  of  effect- 
ing this  separation  of  the  butter  globules.  The  oldest 
and  simplest  is  that  of  putting  the  cream  into  an 
upright  churn,  in  which  the  cream  is  agitated  by  mov- 
ing a  long  dasher,  pierced  with  holes,  up  and  down,  till 
the  object  is  accomplished. 

There  are,  strictly  speaking,  o  lly  two  forms  of  the 
churn  which  are  used  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  One 
is  broad  at  the  bottom  and  narrow  at  the  top.  This 
has  been  known  from  the  earliest  times,  and  is  called 
the  old  churn,  Fig.  100. 

This  old  churn  is  still  used  in  many  dairies,  and  if 


310 


VARIETIES     OF     CHURNS. 


Fi«.  100. 


has  the  preference  over  the  other  form, 
because  it  is  thought  to  bring  the  butter 
quicker  and  more  completely. 

The  other  form  is  more  like  a  beer  or 
brandy  cask  on  end,  being  smaller  at 
each  end  than  in  the  middle,  and  is 
called  the  barrel-churn.  Both  kinds  are 
made  of  oak-wood,  and  have  wooden  or 
broad  metal  hoops.  In  the  one  case 
they  are  painted  outside  ;  in  the  other, 
they  remain  of  the  natural  color,  but  are  the  more 
frequently  scoured,  so  that  the  dark-colored  oak-wood 
gets  a  whitish  color.  The  metallic  hoops  are  always 
kept  polished  bright. 

Both  kinds  are  of  different  sizes,  according  as  the. 
quantity  of  cream  is  greater  or  less,  or  as  they  are  to 
be  worked  by  hand  or  animal  power  simply,  or  by 
machinery.  In  South  Holland,  where  unquestionably 
the  most  butter  is  made,  the  barrel-churn  is  at  each 
end  about  two  feet  and  two  inches  in  diameter,  and 
in  the  centre  is  seven  inches  broader,  with  two-inch 
staves.  The  old  churn,  on  the  other  hand,  is  usually 
fourteen  inches  at  the  top  and  twenty-five  at  the  bot- 
tom. 

In  North  Holland  and  West  Friesland,  also,  sizes  are 
found  in  which  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred 
quarts  of  cream  can  be  churned.  The  churns  have  each 
a  strong  cover  at  the  top,  which  fits  into  their  rim  about 
the  thickness  of  the  hand,  with  a  hole  in  the  middle  for 
the  dasher. 

The  churning  is  performed  either  by  the  hand  motion 
of  the  dasher,  as  in  all  small  dairies,  and  in  the  smallest 
churns,  or  by  man-power  with  the  help  of  certain 
mechanical  contrivances.  The  means  for  effecting  this 
are  different,  and  so   the  churns  have  different  names. 


MOVING     THE    DASHER.  311 

In  many  dairies,  for  instance,  they  have  a  lever  con- 
nected with  the  dasher  ;  in  other  places  they  use  a 
flexible  pole,  fixed  into  the  ceiling  above,  for  facilitat- 
ing the  motion  of  the  dasher,  or  put  a  lever  in  motion 
with  the  feet,  which  raises  and  sinks  the  dasher.  There 
are  also  complicated  artificial  butter-machines  and 
butter-mills,  which  are  named  after  the  inventor,  the 
manufacturer,  or  the  motive  power.  The  most  known 
and  widely  used  are  the  turning-mills,  the  wheel-mills, 
and  the  clock-work  mills  :  as  the  Hand  Butter-Mill  of 
Valk,  Fiirst's  churn,  etc. 

There  are  also  still  more  elaborate  machine-works 
for  moving  the  dasher,  which  are  used  in  the  larger 
dairies  on  account  of  their  convenience  and  economy. 
Dog-power  and  horse-power  churns  are  frequently  met 
with. 

Churning  in  the  Common  Churn.  —  The  use  of  this 
is  well  known.  The  dasher  is  moved  up  and  down  by 
hand,  with  the  churn  full  of  cream,  till  the  butter 
particles  are  separated  and  collected  together.  The 
operator  keeps  his  body  in  equilibrium,  to  exercise  the 
power  of  moving  the  dasher  regularly  for  agitating  the 
cream. 

The  Lever  Churn  is  very  commonly  used  in  South 
Holland,  Fig.  101.  The  churn  itself  is  barrel-form, 
as  already  described,  and  the  dasher  is  put  in  motion 
by  a  lever.  The  upper  end  is  pierced  with  holes, 
through  which  runs  an  iron  pin.  In  a  beam  of  the 
ceiling  two  joists  are  firmly  fixed,  about  a  foot  and 
five  inches  long  and  four  inches  square,  and  several 
inches  apart.  The  longer  arm  of  the  lever  is  four 
feet  and  seven  inches ;  the  shorter,  three  feet  and  six 
inches.  The  churn  stands  under  the  short  arm  of  the 
lever,  where  the  dasher  is  fixed.  By  drawing  the 
longer   arm    of  the  lever   towards   him,  the    operator 


312 


THE     LEVER     CHURN. 


presses  the  dasher  down  through  the  cream.  This 
mode  is  far  less  wearisome  than  the  hand-churn, 
because  by  the  lever,  with  less  expense  of  power,  a  far 
greater  agitation  is  produced.  A  weight  is  sometimes 
attached  to  the  longer  arm,  by  which  the  power  required 
is  still  further  reduced. 

Churning  with  an  Elastic  Rod.  —  The  old-fashioned 
churn  is  set  in  motion  by  the  aid  of  another  kind  of 
power,  as  seen  in  Fig.  102.  A  long,  tough,  flexible 
stick  is  fastened  into  the  cross-beam  in  the  ceiling,  so 
that  its  larger  end  is  held  firm  by  two  iron  clasps.  The 
elasticity  of  the  rod  is  such  that,  when  the  smaller  end 
is  drawn  down  by  hand,  which,  at  the  same  time,  moves 


THE    ELASTIC     ROD. 


313 


the  dasher,  it  rebounds,  and  thus   saves   considerable 
expenditure  of  power. 


Fig.  102. 

Churning  with  the  Treadle  Lever.  —  In  many 
places  the  churn  is  put  in  motion  by  the  feet,  as  in  Fig. 
103,  where  several  levers  are  united  to  produce  the 
upward  and  downward  motion  of  the  dasher.  The 
longer  arm  of  the  lever  is  connected  with  the  churn, 
and  the  shorter  is  set  in  motion  by  a  foot-board. 
The  foot-board  lies  on  a  roller,  with  its  longer  part 
attached  to  the  lever  ;  and  by  throwing  the  weight  of 
the  body  upon  this  part  the  shorter  arm  of  the  lever 
is  drawn  down,  and  the  longer,  attached  to  the  churn- 
'•27 


314 


THE    TREADLE    LEVER. 


Fig.  106. 


dasher,  is  raised.  The  mode  of  operation  is  so  plainly 
seen  in  the  cut  as  to  need  no  explanation. 

Among  the  more  ingenious  contrivances  used  for 
churning  in  Holland  belongs  the  churn  invented  by 
Fiirst.  The  body  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  barrel- 
churn,  but  is  smaller  ;  and  it  is  of  uniform  diameter 
throughout,  as  in  Fig.  104.  It  is  covered  with  a 
wooden  lid,  furnished  with  a  convenient  handle,  and 
stands  on  a  low  platform,  to  which  it  is  fixed,  when  in 
use,  by  means  of  a  screw,  h.  The  motion  is  com- 
municated to  the  dasher  by  means  of  a  wheel,  or  wind- 
lass, and  an  endless  cord. 

In  the  interior  of  the  cylinder  is  placed  a  kind  of 


THE    HAND     BUTTER-MILL. 


315 


g.  104. 


ventilator,  Fig.  105.  This  consists  of  eight  wooden 
wings,  pierced  with  holes,  and  motion  is  communicated 
to  it  by  means    of   the    wheel,   b,    connected    bv   the 


Fig.  105. 

cord  to  the  larger  windlass.  The  wings  of  the  machine, 
when  set  in  motion,  strike  incessantly  in  the  cream,  and 
so  powerfully  that  the  whole  mass  is  agitated,  and  in  this 
manner  the  separation  of  the  butter  particles  is  soon 
effected.  The  motion  is  so  rapid  that  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  turn  the  crank  very  slowly,  especially  just  as  the 
butter  is  coming. 

Valk's  Hand  Butter-Mill,  Fig.  106,  has  many  ad- 
vantages.     It  is  less   fatiguing  to    work   than  the  old- 


816 


THE    DOG-POWER    CHURN 


fashioned  churn,  and  even  than  Fiirst's,  because  the 
motion  of  the  body  required  is  simple  and  less  exact- 
ing.    And  again,  the  churn  takes  up  less  room,  and  is 


easily  transported,  which  is  an  important  consideration 
in  churning,  on  account  of  the  influence  of  the  tempe- 


Fig.  107. 


THE    DOUBLE     DASHER. 


317 


rature.  In  summer  the  heat  may  delay,  or  render  the 
operation  difficult,  and  in  winter  the  coldness  presents 
obstacles.  A  transportable  churn  can  be  moved  into  a 
cool  place  in  summer,  and  a  warm  one  in  winter,  when 
it  is  desirable.  The  dasher  of  the  churn  is  also  seen 
separate  in  the  same  figure. 

The  Dog-power  Churn,  Fig.  107,  economizes  labor, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  more  butter  is  obtained,  on 
account  of  the  uniformity  of  the  agitation  produced.  It 
is  in  use  in  all  the  Dutch  provinces.  The  form  and  size 
of  the  churn  are  comparatively  indifferent ;  but  the 
tread-wheel  and  direction  of  the  moving  power  are  the 
important  points.  The  diameter  of  the  wheel  is  from 
ten  to  twelve  feet,  and  the  rim  or  outer  circumference 

is  made  of  boards  two 
feet  wide.  The  weight 
of  the  animal  turns  the 
wheel  and  moves  the 
dasher  by  means  of 
cogs,  as  shown  in  the 
figure. 

Where  there  is  a 
sufficient  supply  of 
moving  power,  a  churn 
with  two  dashers  is 
sometimes  attached,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  108,  in 
which  case  one  dasher 
moves  down  while  the 
other  is  raised. 

A  large   and  strong 

dog   is    required,   and' 

he  is  easily  taught  to 

keep  to  his  work,  by  beginning  with  short  trials,  and 

gradually  lengthening  them.    A  steady  and  uniform  step 

27* 


318 


THE    HORSE-POWER     CHURN. 


is  necessary,  and  this  will  soon  be  acquired.     The  dog 
is  sometimes  left  free,  and  sometimes  tied  by  a  line. 


Fig.  109. 


Churning  by  Horse-power.  —  On  large  farms  and  in 
extensive  dairies  the  churning  is  done  by  horse-power, 


Wis.  no 


THE     TIME    IT    TAKES    TO     CHURN.  319 

as  shown  in  Fig.  109.  The  form  of  the  churn  itself 
is  optional  in  this  case,  also.  The  size  of  the  wheel  va- 
ries, but  it  is  seldom  less  than  nine  or  ten  feet  in  diam- 
eter, furnished  with  cogs  on  the  upper  surface,  which 
are  from  four  to  six  inches  long,  and  play  into  a  smaller 
wheel,  the  axle  of  which  is  attached  to  the  dasher  of 
the  churn.  A  third  and  smaller  wheel  is  sometimes 
introduced,  as  in  Fig.  110.  A  quick  and  regular  step 
is  required  of  the  animal,  and  a  quiet  and  docile  horse 
is  always  preferred.  A  horse  adapted  to  this  work  com- 
mands a  good  price.  Blinders  are  always  used  on  the 
horse  while  churning. 

Duration  of  the  Churning.  —  In  whatever  way  the 
churning  is  performed,  the  result  is  always  a  separation 
of  the  fatty  particles  from  the  other  constituents  of 
the  milk.  As  soon  as  the  churning  indicates  that  the 
butter  particles  increase  in  size  and  collect  together, 
the  motion  of  the  dasher  must  be  hastened  till  the  but-- 
ter  has  come  together  in  a  large  mass.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  to  observe  the  appearance  of  this  form- 
ation. The  Dutch  dairymaids  acquire  great  skill,  by 
long  practice  and  experience,  in  judging  of  the  proper 
moment  when  the  separation  of  the  particles  has  com- 
pletely taken  place.  .  Very  great  importance  is  with 
justice  attached  to  this  skill,  for  it  is  undoubtedly  true 
that  one  with  this  knowledge  can  get  far  more  and 
better  butter  from  milk  of  the  same  quality,  the  same 
quantity,  and  skimmed  at  the  same  time. 

The  cream  taken  from  the  milk  of  thirty-five  cows, 
after  standing  twenty-four  hours,  is  generally  churned 
in  summer  in  less  than  an  hour,  sometimes  in  three 
quarters  of  an  hour.  In  very  hot  weather  the  cream- 
pot  is  frequently  set  into  the  cool-bath  of  fresh  water 
for  five  or  six  hours  before  the  churning  begins,  and  it 
churns  the  easier  for  it.     Cold  water  is  never  poured 


320 


WORKING     OF    THE    BUTTER. 


into  the  churn  with  the  cream.  In  winter,  as  well  as  in 
cold  weather  in  spring  and  fall,  warm  water  is  some- 
times poured  in  with  the  cream. 

Working  and  Treatment  of  Butter.  —  When  the 
churning  is  finished,  the  dairy-woman 
takes  out  the  butter  with  a  wooden 
scoop,  Fig.  Ill,  and  puts  it  into  a 
tub  for  further  working.  The  tub, 
Kg.  111.  Fig>     112?     is      a 

L-ioad,  shallow  vessel,  open  at  the 

top,  and  having  an  opening  at  the 

bottom    which    is    stopped    by   a 

bung.      The  scoop  is  pierced  with 

holes,  through  which  the  butter-milk  Fig.  112. 

drains.     The  butter  put   into    the    tub  is  now  rinsed. 

salted,  and  formed. 

The  tub  is  put  upon  a  low,  firm  table,  and  the  butter 
is  worked  by  the  hands,  or  by  a  shallow,  rather  wide 
and  strong  wooden  ladle,  until  the  butter  is  united  into 
one  firm  and  entire  mass.  Many 
dairy-women  are  accustomed  to 
work  the  butter  out  from  the  mid- 
dle towards  all  sides  before  bring- 
iing  the  whole  mass  together  in  the 
till  ^i^^lX  tuk-  Th.en  very  clear  and  pure 
illins       Jt^NJ&W-^  fresh  cold  water  is  poured 

upon  the  butter,  and 
J  worked  through  it  till  all 
the  milky  particles  are 
entirely  removed.  After 
this  is  done  in  several 
workings,  the  bung  is 
removed  from  the  bottom 
■*■ 113-  of  the  tub,  and  the  watery 

matter  runs  down  through  a  little  strainer,  as  in  Fig.  113. 


SALTING.  —  PREPARING    FOR    MARKET-DAY.     321 

As  a  general  rule,  butter  is  washed  with  water  and 
worked  over  eleven  or  twelve  times ;  yet  the  operator 
must  judge  whether  the  butter  contains  any  particles  of 
milk,  and  must  work  with  water  till,  as  it  runs  off,  it  is 
no  longer  whitish,  but  perfectly  clear.  Butter  some- 
times becomes  too  soft  from  too  much  working,  if  it  is 
all  done  at  once  ;  it  is  then  worked  over  two  or  three 
times,  and  allowed  to  stand  in  cold  water  after  each 
working,  which  preserves  its  hardness  and  texture. 
This  whole  operation  is  called  the  washing  of  the  butter. 
When  the  washing  is  finished,  the  butter  is  cut  with 
a  blunt,  saw-toothed  knife,  Fig.  114,  in  every  direction, 

in    order   to    remove    all 
hairs,   or    fibres    of    any 
ris-114-  kind,  which  by  any  pos- 

sibility have  got  into  it  during  the  day.  It  is  then 
sprinkled  over  with  white,  finely-powdered  salt,  the 
quantity  of  which  is  regulated  by  the  taste ;  and  this  is 
perfectly  worked  in,  so  that  the  whole  is  uniformly 
salted.  Most  dairy-women  determine  the  quantity  of 
salt  by  the  eye  and  the  taste,  and  acquire  such  facility 
by  continued  practice  that  they  always  get  the  proper 
quantity  ;  but  less  experienced  ones  take  the  salt  by 
weight.  The  salting  is  not  all  done  at  once,  but  is  con- 
tinued three  or  four  days,  twelve  hours  intervening 
between  each  application,  until  all  the  salt  uaS  dissolved, 
and  not  a  crystal  is  to  be  found.  If  the  butter  has  a 
speckled  and  variegated  appearance,  it  is  a  sign  that  the 
salt  is  not  completely  worked  in,  and  the  neglect  must 
be  remedied  by  working  it  over  still  more  in  the  most 
thorough  manner.  When  the  salt  is  all  dissolved,  the 
butter  is  brought  into  single  balls  and  got  ready  for 
the  next  market-day,  or  the  whole  mass  is  put  into  a 
particular  keg,  in  order  to  be  taken  to  market  at  some 
subsequent  time  as  firkin-butter. 

21 


322 


THE     BUTTER-MOULDS. 


The  Form  of  Fresh  Butter.  —  The  form  of  the  but- 
ter is  made  by  taking  a  suitable  quantity  and  press- 
ing it  into  a  mould,  and  then  taking  it  out  by  knocking 
on  the  mould.  Many  different  forms  of  butter-moulds 
are  in  use  in  the  different  sections  of  Holland,  such  as 
are  shown  in  Figs.  115,  116,  and  others. 


b'l/.  115.  Fig.  116. 

The  figures  impressed  on  the  butter  are  given  by  the 
mould,  where  it  is  deeply  engraved  ;  or  they  are  made 
after  the  butter  is  taken  out  of  the  mould,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose a  peculiar  instrument  is  used,  Fig.  117,  a  kind  of  flat 
wooden  spoon,  with  a  short,  convenient  handle, 
and  long  grooves  in  the  broad,  flat  surface.    Eacli 
region   has   its   own   peculiar   stamp,  or  special 
figures,  which  are  given  to  lump-butter,  to  which 
particular  attention    is  paid  by  the  purchaser. 
The    butter-dealer  knows    exactly  that  in    one 
section  butter  is  stamped  in  one  way,  in  another 
section  in  some  other  way  ;  and  that  the  butter 
of  one  section,  with  its  peculiar  stamp,  is  worth 
iitr.  117.   more  than  that  of  another. 
The  butter-moulds  are  generally  made  of  linden-wood, 
but  must  always  be  large  enough  to  hold  at  least  a  cer- 
tain prescribed  weight  of  butter;  for  all    lump-butter 
brought  for  sale  to  the  weekly  market  must  be  of  a 
prescribed  weight.     This  weight  is  very  different,  and 
almost  every  city  has  different  regulations  and  market 
customs;  yet,  in    most    places,  a    pound    is    the    legal 


THE    PACKING     OF    BUTTER.  323 

weight.  Certain  market-masters,  or  inspectors  of  but- 
ter, are  appointed,  and  watch  that  all  the  butter  has  its 
proper  weight.  If  too  light,  it  is  forfeited  by  the 
seller,  who  is  also  punished  for  fraud.  The  butter 
brought  to  market  is  generally  covered  with  very  clean 
white  cloths,  and  several  sample  lumps  are  put  for 
inspection  in  a  large  butter-bowl,  basket,  or  shallow 
box. 

Many  dairymen  are  accustomed  in  spring,  when  the 
first  grass  butter  is  made,  to  send  their  regular  custom- 
ers a  few  little  lumps  of  fresh  May  or  grass  butter. 
These  presents  generally  have  a  peculiar  form,  and  on 
the  specimens  most  carefully  prepared  some  animal  is 
moulded,  as  a  sheep  lying  down,  a  dog,  &c,  with  a  bunch 
of  green  grass  or  buttercups  in  its  mouth.  The  dairy- 
woman  herself  usually  presents  this  butter  in  a  beauti- 
ful milk-bowl  adorned  with  grass  and  flowers,  covered 
with  glittering  white  cloths. 

The  Packing  of  Butter  in  Firkins  and  Barrels. — 
If  the  butter  packed  in  firkins  and  barrels  is  to  be  kept 
a  long  time,  experience  and  knowledge  are  required  to 
pack  it  so  that  it  will  not  be  injured.  The  form  and 
size  of  these  casks  are  different  in  different  sections  and 
provinces.  Where  butter-making  forms  a  chief  branch 
of  dairy  business,  the  particular  form  and  size  which 
have  been  used  for  a  long  time  are  adhered  to,  because 
dairymen  know  very  well  that  the  public  recognizes 
their  choice  butter  by  the  form  and  size  of  the  casks, 
and  buys  it  the  more  readily.  The  greatest  anxiety  of 
the  Dutch  butter-maker  is  to  keep  up  the  old,  well-earned 
reputation  which  Dutch  butter  has  in  every  foreign 
country,  both  for  its  intrinsic  good  qualities,  the  result 
of  the  process  of  manufacture,  and  for  its  extraordinary 
appearance  as  an  article  of  commerce. 

For  the  proper  preservation  of  the  good  qualities  of 


324  THE    CASKS    REGULATED     BY    LAW. 

butter,  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  have  the  casks 
properly  made  and  treated ;  but  the  mode  of  salting  and 
packing  the  butter  in  them  is  also  of  special  import- 
ance, since  this  is  examined  at  the  sale.  The  old  and 
customary  forms  and  sizes  of  butter-casks  are,  there- 
fore, of  great  consequence  to  the  butter-maker,  because 
every  butter-dealer  and  judge  of  butter  recognizes  at 
unce,  by  the  external  form  of  the  casks,  from  what  sec- 
tion the  butter  comes,  and  makes  up  his  mind  on  the 
money  value  of  the  article  from  these  appearances. 

It  was  not  originally  known  what  kinds  of  wood  were 
best  for  transporting  butter  long  distances  in,  and  pre- 
serving its  highest  qualities ;  and  butter-casks  were 
made  of  several  kinds  of  wood,  as  oak,  beech,  willow, 
etc.  But  it  was  for  the  interest  of  the  government  that 
Dutch  butter  should  maintain  its  reputation  for  extraor- 
dinary qualities  abroad,  and  the  most  rigid  laws  were 
enacted,  prescribing  from  what  wood  the  casks  should 
be  made,  etc. ;  and  now  only  oak  is  allowed  to  be  used, 
and  the  casks  are  all  inspected  and  stamped  according 
to  law.     *     *     *     * 

Before  the  butter  is  packed  the  casks  are  properly 
cleaned  and  prepared,  for  which  practice  and  experience 
are  requisite. 

Old  butter-casks  that  have  been  previously  used  are 
cleaned  of  every  particle  of  fat  and  dirt  remaining  in 
them,  and  scoured  and  washed  out  as  carefully  as  pos- 
sible, and  are  placed  for  several  days  in  running  water 
before  they  are  used  again.  If  no  running  water  is  at 
hand,  quite  clean  pond  or  spring  water  is  taken,  and  all 
impure  water  is  carefully  avoided.  After  they  have  lain 
in  the  water  five  or  six  days,  they  are  carefully  scoured 
out  with  good  wood-ashes  and  sand,  and  again  well 
rinsed.  After  several  scourings  and  soakings,  they  are 
put  into  a  kettle  over  a  fire  and  carefully  scalded  ;  and 


TREATMENT    OF    NEW    CASKS.  325 

then,  when  cold,  again  scoured  and  rinsed,  for  which 
the  most  judicious  dairymen  use  milk  instead  of  water, 
and  they  are  then  placed  to  dry  in  the  air.  They  are 
fit  for  use  only  when  everything  has  been  done  in  the 
most  careful  manner. 

But  new  butter-casks  require  still  more  particular  and 
careful  treatment  before  they  can  be  filled  with  butter 
without  fear  of  injury.  They  are  got  ready  for  pack- 
ing in  several  different  ways.  Some  dairymen  let  them 
lie  in  pure  water  a  whole  summer  and  winter  long,  and 
wash  them  out  in  lye,  and  then  treat  them  just  as  they 
do  those  that  have  been  used.  Others,  however,  who 
give  the  new  casks  the  preference  over  the  old,  but 
who  cannot  wait  for  the  soaking  in  ]ye  over  summer 
and  winter,  treat  them  in  the  following  manner :  They 
prepare  a  lye  of  good  American  potash,  which  generally 
contains  the  most  alkali,  in  a  cask  holding  some  three 
hundred  quarts,  taking  a  pound  of  potash  to  twenty 
pounds  of  water.  For  a  cask  of  the  size  named  fifteen 
pounds  of  potash  are  used,  which  is  prepared  by  pour- 
ing boiling  water  upon  it  and  stirring  constantly,  add- 
ing  a  little  more  water  as  the  potash  dissolves.  With 
this  lye,  which  will  be  about  five  degrees  strong  by 
Beaume's  aerometer,  the  butter-barrels  are  entirely 
filled.  The  barrels  stand  two  hours  filled  with  lye,  and 
are  theo  emptied  and  exposed  to  the  air  to  dry,  without 
being  scoured  out  with  water  or  milk.  The  lye  may  be 
used  again  for  other  new  barrels,  even  though  a  part 
of  its  strength  may  be  gone.,  Potash  is  added,  from 
time  to  time,  to  keep  up  the  specified  degree  of  strength. 
A  solution  of  fifteen  pounds  of  coarsely-powdered  alum 
is  prepared  in  about  three  hundred  quarts  of  hot  water, 
in  a  vessel  as  large  as  the  lye-cask.  The  butter-barrels 
are  also  filled  full  of  the  solution  of  alum,  and  allowed 
to  stand  twenty-four  hours.  This  alum  solution  must 
28 


326  EFFECT    OF    LYE    ON    THE    BARRELS. 

also  be  of  five  degrees  strength  by  Beaume's  scale,  and 
it  can  be  used  over  and  over  by  adding  more  alum  now 
and  then.  After  emptying  out  the  alum  and  lye,  they 
are  dried  a  day  in  the  sun  and  air,  and  then  rinsed  out 
in  fresh,  pure  water,  when  they  can  be  used  for  packing 
butter  without  fear.  Some  add  a  little  sulphate  of 
iron  or  green  copperas  to  the  alum,  when  the  solution 
is  more  powerful  ;  yet  the  management  of  the  butter- 
barrels  is  then  more  troublesome,  and  requires  more 
experience.  The  effect  of  the  copperas  has  also  the 
disadvantage  that  it  blackens  the  barrels,  which,  though 
it  does  not  injure  them,  is  not  liked  by  the  purchaser. 

By  this  treatment  the  new  butter-barrels  are  much 
more  quickly  and  cheaply  cleansed,  and  got  ready  for 
packing  and  transporting  butter,  than  by  the  course 
pursued  with  old  barrels.  The  barrels,  treated  as  above, 
are  not  only  quite  water-tight,  but  the  wood  is  stronger 
and  more  durable.  By  means  of  the  potash-lye  and  the 
alum  solution  the  tannin  is  taken  from  the  oak-wood 
used  in  the  barrels,  which,  if  it  remained,  would  give  a 
disagreeable  taste  to  the  butter.  The  effect  of  the  pot- 
ash and  alum  upon  the  wood  of  the  barrels  is  quite 
harmless,  and  does  not  impart  the  least  unhealthy  quality 
to  the  butter. 

When  the  old  or  new  barrels  have  been  cleansed  and 
prepared,  in  either  of  the  ways  indicated,  suitably  for 
packing  the  butter,  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  is  evenly 
covered  with  salt.  Then  a  layer  of  butter  which  has 
been  thoroughly  washed  and  salted  is  made,  and 
another  layer  of  salt,  and  so  alternate  layers  of  salt 
and  butter  till  the  barrel  is  full,  when  a  little  brine  of 
salt  and  water  is  poured  on  top.  The  butter  is  now 
ready  to  be  laid  in  the  cellar,  and  thence  to  be  sold  and 
exported.  When  the  dairy  is  not  sufficiently  large  to 
fill   a  barrel   each    day,    the   butter    of  several  churn- 


SUPPLY     OF    THE    HOME    MARKET. 


327 


ings  must  be  used,  and  the  barrel  filled  from  time  to 
time  aa  it  stands  in  the  cellar.  In  that  case  the  upper 
layer  of  butter  is  left  covered  with  salt,  and  the  cover 
of  the  barrel  is  closed  down  tight.  In  most  large  dai- 
ries a  barrel  is  generally  filled  at  one  churning,  which  is 
considered  better  for  the  quality  of  the  butter.  The 
butter  is  always  packed  in  so  firmly  that  no  space  is  left, 
unfilled. 

In  doing  up  butter  for  sale  at  home,  or  at  a  neighbor- 
ing market,  the  lumps  are  worked  into  the  form  of  half 
a  sphere,  and  put  into  little  bright-hooped  boxes,  made 
to  fit  into  larger  casks,  which  can  be  nicely  covered  and 
closed  up,  as  seen  in  Fig.  119,  where  the  dairy-woman 
holds  a  box  in  her  hand.  The  covered  casks  are  also 
seen  carefully  nailed  up. 


J?ig.  119 

The  buyer  who  wishes  to  try  the  butter  uses  a  long 
iron  or  steel  borer,  hollow  inside,  and  furnished  with  a 
handle,  as  also  seen  in  the  cut.  This  not  only  enables 
him  to  test  the  quality  but  the  uniformity  of  the  butter 
in  the  cask. 


328  ARTIFICIAL     COLORING     OF    BUTTER. 

Coloring  of  Butter.  —  The  practice  of  coloring  but- 
ter is  founded  on  the  fact  that  we  are  accustomed  tc 
form  our  judgment  at  once  of  the  qualities  of  the  arti- 
cle from  the  whiteness  or  the  yellowness  of  its  color. 
Whiter  butter  is  less  attractive  generally  than  yellow 
summer  or  grass-made  butter.  The  color  has  come  to 
be  important  to  the  seller,  and  artificial  means  are  found 
to  regulate  it. 

The  coloring  is  made  as  follows :  About  a  pound  of 
butter  is  melted,  so  that  the  heavier  parts  sink  to  the 
bottom,  when  the  light,  clear  fat  on  the  top  is  poured 
into  another  dish.  In  this  fat  thus  poured  off  is  put  a 
piece  of  annatto  about  the  size  of  a  walnut,  wrapped 
up  in  a  linen  cloth,  and  it  is  then  again  put  over  the 
fire.  The  coloring  matter  of  the  annatto  strains  through 
the  linen  cloth,  and  turns  the  butter  brown  red,  when 
it  is  allowed  to  cool  off.  When  the  butter  is  to  be  col- 
ored, some  of  this  brown  red  is  melted,  salted,  and 
mixed  very  carefully  into  the  butter  after  washing.  The 
quantity  of  coloring  matter  used  depends  en  the  color 
which  the  maker  wants  to  impart  to  his  butter,  and  a 
little  practice  soon  enables  him  to  take  the  right  quan- 
tity. Others  pour  the  coloring  matter  directly  upon 
the  butter  to  attain  the  same  end. 

In  coloring  artificially  it  is  important  to  get  a  uniform- 
ity of  color,  which  is  the  result  of  very  thorough  work- 
ing.    Colored  butter  must  not  be  marbled. 

The  cream  is  sometimes  colored  before  churning. 
The  annatto  is  put  into  a  clean  beech-wood  lye,  and  as 
much  of  this  colored  and  strained  lye  is  taken  as  is 
necessary  to  produce  the  desired  color  in  the  butter.  It 
is  then  churned  as  usual. 

Turmeric  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  annatto  for 
coloring  butter.  It  has  no  advantage,  however  over 
annatto 


THE    USE     OP    BUTTER-MILK.  329 

In  many  sections  the  butter  is  colored  with  an  ex- 
tract of  saffron  in  water,  or  of  marigold,  or  with  the 
juice  of  carrots,  which  is  applied  to  the  cream  before 
churning. 

The  coloring  acids  nothing  to  the  quality  or  the  taste. 
It  is  done  for  the  sake  of  the  looks  ;  but  it  gives  the 
butter  a  deceptive  appearance. 

Use  of  the  Butter-milk.  —  The  butter-milk  in  the 
churn  is  poured  into  a  great  cask,  which  in  large 
dairies,  as  a  general  rule,  is  painted  blue  outside  and 
white  inside,  with  broad  black  iron  hoops.  It  stands 
generally  in  the  kitchen  covered  with  a  wooden  lid. 
Butter-milk  is  used  either  in  cooking,  or  for  calves  or 
swine,  or  is  sold. 

Dairymen  in  the  vicinity  of  large  cities  have  barrels 
with  broad,  bright  brass  hoops,  in  which  they  carry 
their  butter-milk  to  market.  It  is  put  into  them 
through  a  bung-hole,  and  when  full  the  wooden  bung 
is  wound  with  linen  and  driven  in.  In  these  barrels 
the  butter-milk  is  carried  to  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam, 
etc.,  sometimes  by  boats  on  the  canals,  sometimes  on 
wagons,  and  by  yokes,  and  there  sold  to  the  grocers  at 
wholesale,  to  be  again  sold  out  by  them.  The  butter- 
milk thus  brings  an  income  by  no  meaus  inconsiderable 
to  well-managed  dairies. 

The  Manufacture  of  the  different  kjnds  of  Dutch 
Cheese.  — From  time  immemorial,  cheese,  as  an  article 
of  commerce,  which  has  had  a  large  sale,  has  brought 
an  extensive  income  to  the  cattle-breeders  and  dairy- 
men where  its  manufacture  has  been  largely  carried 
on,  as  everywhere  in  West  Friesland,  North  and  South 
Holland,  and  along  the  borders  of  the  crooked  Rhine  in 
Utrecht. 

Dairymen  are  not  the  only  ones  who  enjoy  the  advan- 
tage which  grows  out  of  the  cheese-trade ;  but  a  large 
28* 


330  VARIOUS    KINDS    OF     CHEESE. 

number  of  other  people  derive  considerable  profit  from 
it,  and  support  themselves  entirely  by  it.  Even  the 
commonalty  of  the  cities,  where  the  weekly  markets  for 
the  sale  of  cheese  are  regularly  held,  derive  a  consid- 
erable revenue  from  the  small  taxes  for  carriage  an  J 
market-dues,  to  which  every  seller  has  to  submit. 

The  actual  difference  between  the  different  kinds 
of  cheese  made  in  Holland  is  due  in  part  to  the  form 
and  size,  and  in  part  to  the  mode  of  making.  Every  sort 
has  also  a  name  derived  from  its  peculiarities,  or  from 
the  provinces  or  sections  where  it  is  made.  The  vari- 
eties of  cheese  best  known  in  the  markets  in  South 
Holland  are  the  spice  cheese,  the  sweet  milk  cheese, 
known  also  under  the  name  of  Gouda  cheese,  the  so- 
called  May  cheese,  the  Council's  cheese,  the  Jews' 
cheese,  and  the  English  cheese,  made  in  many  places. 

Further  up  in  North  Holland,  the  North  Dutch  sweet 
milk  cheese,  as  it  is  commonly  called  in  the  province, 
known  in  the  foreign  markets  as  Edam  cheese,  is  almost 
exclusively  made.  A  kind  of  sweet  milk  cheese  is  made 
to  a  limited  extent,  called  Commissions'  cheese.  In 
West  Friesland,  Utrecht,  and  South  Holland,  but  few 
except  sweet  milk  cheeses  are  made. 

In  making  cheese,  the  utmost  cleanliness  is  most  care- 
fully observed  in  all  the  operations.  Whoever  is 
intrusted  with  this  work  is  required  to  display  the 
utmost  neatness  in  his  whole  person,  as  well  as  in  the 
dairy-room ;  and  the  vats  and  other  utensils  are  daily 
scoured,  washed  with  lye,  and  washed  out  in  water  and 
linsed.  The  greatest  attention  is  also  paid  to  the  trans- 
port of  cheese  to  the  weekly  markets  in  the  cities ; 
and  in  whatever  way  his  load  is  carried,  whether  by 
wagon  or  in  little  boats,  the  person  intrusted  with  it  is 
always  dressed  in  the  so-called  cheese-frock,  a  large  white 
linen,  which  is  used  exclusively  for  this  purpose.     At 


MODE    OF    MAKING    SPICE     CHEESE.  331 

the  market  itself  the  cheese  is  laid  on  a  four-cornered 
bench,  two  feet  high,  and  exposed  to  view  in  a  glitter- 
ing white  linen  cloth.  But,  in  order  to  keep  off  all  dust 
and  impurities,  a  sail-cloth  is  raised  over  the  whole, 
called  the  cheese-sail ;  or  it  is  covered  with  a  sail-cloth 
covering,  or  sometimes  with  clean  straw.  But  in  other 
places  it  is  customary  to  carry  the  cheese  on  wagons, 
in  a  white  linen  cloth,  and  covered  with  a  woollen  cover, 
ready  packed  for  sale  at  the  markets. 

Cheese-making  in  South  Holland.  —  Spice  cheese 
from  skim-milk,  and  sweet  milk  or  Gouda  cheese,  are 
the  only  kinds  made  to  any  extent  in  South  Holland. 
Spice  cheese,  which  derived  its  name  from  the  addition 
of  spices,  is  a  firm,  flat  cheese,  of  about  twenty  pounds 
weight,  brought  to  market  generally  colored  red.  It  is 
three  quarters  of  a  foot  thick,  and  one  and  a  half  feet  in 
diameter,  and  is  made  as  follows : 

The  skim-milk  is  poured  from  the  milk-pans  into  large 
tubs,  and  allowed  to  stand  quiet  till  the  cheesy  matter 
has  settled  to  the  bottom,  which  requires,  perhaps,  half 
a  day.  Then  the  thin  liquid  on  top  is  poured  off  very 
carefully,  without  stirring  up  the  rest,  through  a  strainer, 
into  a  large  brass  kettle,  till  it  is  full ;  but  the  thicker 
substance  at  the  bottom  is  left,  and  not  put  into  the 
kettle.  Under  this  kettle  a  fire  is  made,  and  the  milk 
heated  to  a  certain  degree,  regulated  by  the  judgment 
of  the  dairymaid,  sufficient  to  warm  other  cold  milk, 
but  it  must  not  boil.  The  fire  is  made  in  the  kitchen, 
or  in  the  summer-house,  or  in  some  other  room  called 
the  cheese-house.  When  the  milk  in  the  kettle  is 
properly  heated,  it  is  poured  into  the  tub  of  milk  which 
has  been  heated  and  allowed  to  get  cold.  This  tub  is 
an  upright  vat,  open  at  the  top,  of  uniform  diameter, 
bound  with  wooden  hoops,  and  generally  left  of  the  nat- 
ural color  of  the  wood  ;  scoured  very  bright,  but  some- 


832 


PREPARATION    OF    RENNET. 


times  painted  blue  and  the 
hoops  black.  It  is  seen  in 
Fig.  120. 

When  the  quantity  of  milk 
is  large,  the  dairyman  puts  in 
as  much  rennet  as  he  thinks 
necessary  to  curdle  the  milk 
completely ;  but  before  and 
^fH^  during  the  addition  of  the 
curd  the  whole  is  thoroughly 
stirred,  and  this  stirring  is 
continued  until  the  stick  or 
Fig- 12°-  wooden  ladle  used  for  the  pur- 

pose will  stand  erect  in  the  curd.  Then  the  dairy- 
woman  works  the  curd  with  her  hands  till  no  further 
effect  of  the  rennet  in  curding  the  milk  is  to  be  seen. 
It  is  called  the  cheese-curd. 

The  rennet  is  prepared  in  the  following  manner :  The 
maw  or  fourth  stomach  of  a  newly-killed  sucking  calf  is 
taken  from  the  other  stomachs,  carefully  cleaned  and 
cut  into  strips  two  inches  wide,  and  then  hung  up  in 
the  chimney  to  be  smoked  and  dried  ;  or,  in  hot  weather 
in  summer,  it  is  hung  up  in  the  sun.  Well  smoked 
and  dried  strips  will  keep  a  very  long  time.  When 
these  are  wanted  for  use,  they  are  very  carefully  washed 
and  purified,  and  then  laid  in  the  salt  brine  from  the 
butter-barrels,  or  in  lukewarm  salt  water  to  soak.  The 
liquid  is  put  into  bottles  and  laid  in  the  cellar.  For 
curding  milk  as  much  is  taken  as  is  thought  to  be 
necessary,  which  cannot  be  determined  without  consid- 
erable practice  and  experience.  If  too  little  is  taken, 
the  cheese  is  not  fat  enough  ;  if  more  than  the  right 
quantity,  it  gives  a  disgusting  acid  taste.  It  is  diffi- 
cult, almost  impossible,  to  state  exactly  how  much  ren- 
net should  be  used  with  a   certain   quantity  of  milk. 


THE    AGE    OF    RENNET. 


333 


because  this  must  be  determined  by  its  quality  and  its 
strength.  Something  like  the  following  quantity  is, 
however,  taken  :  In  a  sixty-quart  vat  are  placed  about 
fifty  rennets,  prepared  by  drying,  washing,  and  cutting, 
and  a  clear  salt  brine  or  butter-pickle  of  twenty  to 
twenty-five  degrees  strength  is  added.  In  smaller  quan- 
tities the  proportion  of  rennet  is  about  one  and  a  half 
quarts  to  a  rennet,  or  even  less.  This  dried  maw  can  be 
bought  everywhere  in  packages  of  twenty-five  pieces 
each. 

One  great  point  in  cheese-making  is  to  have  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  good  rennet  in  store ;  for  the  older  it 
grows  the  more  powerful  and  effective  it  becomes,  and 
the  experienced  cheese-makers,  studying  their  own 
interests,  know  very  well  how  difficult,  hurtful,  and 
time-wasting,  it  is  to  use  fresh  or  new  rennet.  The  asser- 
tion sometimes  made  that  they  use  muriatic  acid  instead 
of  rennet  for  curding  the  milk  in  Holland  rests  on  an 
error,  at  least  so  far  as  the  present  methods  are  con- 
cerned. In  earlier  times,  and  for  the  poorest  kinds,  as 
the  Jews'  cheese,  muriatic  acid  was  more  or  less  used. 

At  the  present  time, 
the  rennet  for  those 
cheeses  is  prepared 
from  the  stomachs  of 
calves  some  days  old. 
When  the  curd  has 
sufficiently  come,  and 
has  all  been  thorough- 
ly broken,  the  dairy- 
woman  puts  a  four- 
cornered  linen  cloth, 
called  the  cheese- 
cloth, which  is  used  only  for  this  purpose,  and  is 
only  loosely  woven,  upon   a   small  strong  ladder  laid 


334 


THE     PRELIMINARY     PRESSING. 


over  the  edges  of  a  low  tub,  and  puts  upon  the 
cloth  the  proper  quantity  of  curd,  then  ties  up  the 
four  corners  of  the  cloth,  and  presses  with  her  whole 
strength,  that  the  milk  may  drain  off.  This  work  is 
also  done  by  men  who  can  apply  great  strength,  Fig. 
121.  The  corners  of  the  cheese-cloth  are  brought 
together,  and  the  operator  presses  as  hard  as  he  can,  in 
order  to  remove  all  the  milk  from  the  curd.  But,  as 
this  is  not  possible  with  the  hands  alone,  the  whole  is 
placed  under  a  plank-press,  and  by  this  means  as  much 
of  the  milk  as  possible  is  pressed  out.  A  strong  cleat 
is  nailed  to  a  pillar  in  the  wall  at  a  convenient  height  from 
the  floor, — say  two  feet,  —  so  that  the  tub,  ladder,  and 
cheese-cloth,  can  be  put  under  the  plank,  when  the 
plank  is  pressed  down  upon  the  cloth  and  curd.  At 
the  other  end  of  the  plank  the  operator  sits  and  presses 


Fig.  122. 


down  with  the  whole  weight  of  his  body,  as  seen  in  Fig. 
122.    The  whey  runs  into  the  tub,  and  is  generally  used 


THE     CHEESE-MOULDS. 


33- 


as  food  for  swine.     The  pressure  is  continued  till  no 
more  runs  off. 

After  the  complete  removal  of  the  whey,  the  curd 
remaining  in  the  cloth  has  the  form  of  the  palms  of  the 
hands,  and  is  pressed  so  firmly  that  it  holds  together 
when  the  cloth  is  removed.  But  it  is  again  broken  up, 
and  put  for  this  purpose  into  the  breaking-tub,  a  low 
hut  broad,  open  tub,  with  wooden  hoops,  and  made  of 
strong  staves,  and  is  here  worked  over  by  the  bare  but 
cleanly-washed  feet  of  the  dairyman,  or  hired  man.  This 
working  with  the  feet  is  continued,  just  as  in  kneading 
dough,  till  all  is  brought  to  a  stiff  paste. 

When  it  has  come  to  this  consistence  the  forming  of 
the  cheese  begins.  The  dairyman  has  for  this  purpose 
a  clieese-moulcl  standing  before  him, 
and  lays  on  the  bottom  a  layer  of 
cheese  without  spice,  and  this  is 
called  the  blind  layer.  The  cheese 
tub  or  mould,  Figs.  123  and  124,  is 
used  only  for  this  first  moulding.  It 
is  a  wooden  vat,  made  of  staves  from 
one  to  one  and  a  half  inches  thick, 
and  is  nine  and  a  half  to  twelve  and  a  half  inches  in 
diameter,  and  about  ten  inches  high,  bound  at  the 
bottom  and  top  with  stout  hoops. 
The  bottom  of  oak-wood,  put  in 
very  carefully,  is  pierced  with  holes 
for  letting  off  any  moisture  that  may 
remain  in  the  cheese.  On  the  top  of 
the  tub  a  cover  is  exactly  fitted,  to 
sink  down  upon  the  cheese  when 
the  pressure  is  applied.  This  cover 
is  of  oak,  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  and  has  a  cross- 
piece  three  and  a  half  inches  thick,  which  servos  as  a 
handle. 


Fig.  123. 


Fig.  124. 


336 


THE  FORM  OF  THE  C  HEESE  -  PRESS. 


The  first  layer  of  cheese  is  quite  firmly  pressed  down 
or  trodden  into  the  mould  with  the  hands  or  feet,  and 
then  follows  a  layer  of  curd  mixed  with  spices.  The 
mixture  is  made  best  by  putting  as  much  of  the  pasty 
curd  from  the  vat  into  a  tub  as  will  form  one  layer  in 
the  mould.  Over  this  the  spice  is  strewn,  caraway  and 
some  pounded  cloves,  and  the  mass  is  then  worked  over, 
when  it  is  placed  as  a  new  layer  into  the  mould.  Upon 
the  second  layer  some  coarsely-pounded  cloves  are 
generally  scattered,  or  they  are  stuck  whole  over  the 
surface.  After  that  the  second  layer  is  pressed  in  like 
the  first,  and  the  third  follows,  and  so  on  till  the  mould 
is  full.  On  the  uppermost  and  firmly  pressed  layer  is 
laid  the  cover.  The  mould  thus  carefully  filled  is  now 
brought  under  a  press,  which,  partly  on  account  of  its 
length,  is  called  the  "long-press,"  and  sometimes  the 
"  first "  or  "  cheese  press,"  because  the  cheese  first 
comes  under  it.     This  press   is  seen  in  Fig.  125.     It 


Fig.  125. 

stands  on  four  short  legs,  and  consists  of  upright  beams 
fixed  upon  a  platform,  and  a  long  beam,  acting  as  a  lever, 
with  one  end  fastened  by  a  rivet  or  bolt.  The  other 
end  is  loaded  with  weights  to  any  desirable  extent,  as 
appears  in  the  cut.  The  power  of  the  press  may  also 
be  increased  or  diminished  by  shifting  the  end  of  thfl 
lever  to  the  lower  or  upper  hole. 


THE  EFFECT  OF  GREAT  PRESSURE. 


337 


When  the  mould  is  put  under  the  press  it  is  set  into 
a  shallow,  four-cornered  wooden  box  or  pan  on  the  foot- 
board. This  pan  is  furnished  with  grooves  at  the  side, 
through  which  the  whey  can  escape.  The  pressure  may 
still  further  be  increased  by  putting  a  block  on  the  lid 
of  the  mould,  as  appears  in  the  press.  It  ^  this  power- 
ful pressure  which  gives  the  cheese  the  high  quality  for 
which  it  is  distinguished  above  others.  The  whey  still 
remaining  in  the  curd  runs  off  through  the  holes  in  the 
bottom  of  the  mould,  when  the  strong  pressure  is 
applied,  into  the  pan,  and  is  caught  in  another  pan  which 
sets  under  the  press. 

When  the  cheese  has  stood  two  hours  under  the 
press,  it  is  taken  from  the  mould,  surrounded  by  a  dean 
linen  cloth,  and  again  brought  under  the  press.  The 
change  of  cloth  is  repeated  once  or  twice  after  two  or 


29 


Fig.  126. 


22 


338  SALTING    IN     THE    TROUGH. 

three  hours'  pressing,  and  the  cheese  is  left  standing  in 
the  press  over  night.     The  next  morning  the  cheese  is 
brought  under  another  press,  under  which  it  is  subjected 
to  still  more  powerful  pressure,  and  receives  its  peculiar 
form.     This  press  is  seen  in  Fig.  126,  and  consists  of  u 
frame  resting  on  four  strong  uprights,  forming  a  kind 
of  firm  table.     On  the  plate  of  the  table  lie  four  or  six 
rollers,  whose  ends   at  both  sides  pass   through  holes 
in  the   standard  pieces,  and  serve  merely  to  assist  in 
taking  out  the  cheese.     The  pressure  is  obtained  by 
heavy  weights  let  down  and  raised  by  a  kind  of  wind- 
lass fixed  in  two  perpendic- 
gpru^^-^s^q^^^^  ular  standards.    The  cheese 
^1  -rtjdESKp  as  it  comes  under  this  press 

(lllllHUiliiinimii  :ji -,i,i-^, ,  n. ;^L— . — -Joft^"       is   not  in  the  mould,  but  is 

simply  laid  in  a  pan,  as  seen 
in  Fig.  127.  Before  the  pressure  begins,  however,  the 
stamp  or  mark  of  the  manufacturer,  a  key,  a  letter, 
etc.,  in  iron,  is  laid  upon  the  cheese,  and  upon  that  a 
square  board.  The  pan  and  weight  are  lowered,  so 
that  the  pressure  begins  and  the  stamp  is  impressed  on 
the  cheese,  which  becomes  flatter,  smoother,  and  firmer, 
than  before.  The  cheese  is  left  under  this  press  till  it 
gets  its  final  form,  and  the  pressure  in  the  pan  is 
increased  or  diminished,  according  to  circumstances. 

When  the  cheese,  after  being  pressed  in  both  ma- 
chines, has  received  its  final  form,  it  is  placed  in  a  long 
trough,  called  the  salt-trough,  which  is  generally  in  the 
cow-room  behind  the  cow-stands.  It  has  been  already 
said  that  the  cow-stall  is  used  as  a  cheese-room  in  sum- 
mer, when  the  cows  are  out  to  pasture.  In  this  trough, 
a  space  deep  and  wide  enough  for  the  diameter  of  the 
cheese,  from  four  to  six  cheeses  can  be  laid.  In  the 
salt-trough  the  cheeses  are  salted  as  long  and  as  thor- 
oughly as  is  necessary.     Observation  and  experience  are 


COLORING. SWEET    MILK     CHEESE.  339 

needed  here  to  get  the  right  quantity  of  salt  and  the 
right  time,  that  the  cheese  may  receive  a  suitably  firm 
crust  or  rind. 

When  the  cheese  in  the  salt-trough  is  sufficiently 
salted,  it  is  put  over  a  large  tub,  where  it  is  properly 
washed  in  cold,  fresh  water,  trimmed  with  a  cheese-knife, 
and  colored.  For  coloring,  annatto  boiled  in  water  with 
some  potash  is  used.  After  the  coloring  the  cheese  is 
rubbed  with  the  beistings,  or  first  milk  of  a  cow  newly- 
calved.  The  spice  cheese  gets  its  red  color  and  firm, 
smooth  rind  in  the  coloring  and  washing  in  the  beist- 
ings ;  and  this  distinguishes  it  from  other  sorts. 

The  colored  cheeses  are  now  laid  upon  shelves  made 
for  the  purpose  in  the  cow-stall  used  as  a  cheese-room, 
and  turned  daily  till  properly  dried.  When  dry  they 
are  laid  for  sale  in  a  cheese  or  store  room.  This  room 
is  connected  with  the  house,  or  separated  from  the 
other  rooms  only  by  a  thin  board  partition.  This  room, 
as  well  as  the  cow-stall,  is  kept  extraordinarily  clean, — 
scoured  and  aired,  and  used  for  nothing  but  the  keeping 
of  cheese. 

Fig.  128  represents  the  cow-stall  used  as  a  cheese- 
room,  in  which  the  salt-trough  is  seen,  and  the  dairyman 
and  dairy-woman  are  occupied  in  turning  and  trimming 
the  cheese. 

Manufacture  of  Sweet  Milk  Cheese  in  South 
Holland.  —  The  best  kind  of  sweet  milk  cheese  is 
made  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  Gouda,  and  on  the 
gray  and  Dutch  Yssel,  from  which  circumstance  it  is 
often  known  by  the  name  of  Gouda  cheese. 

The  making  of  this  cheese  is  less  difficult  than  that 
of  spice  cheese,  but  requires  more  attention  and  care, 
because  the  rich  sweet  milk  is  used  for  it.  It  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  milk  as  it  comes  fresh  from  the  cow  is 
Btrained  through  a  hair-strainer  into  a  large  wooden  vat 


340 


THE     CHEESE-ROOM. 


or  tub,  or,  in  some  large  dairies,  into  a  copper  kettle 
which  stands  on  a  peculiar  tray  or  bench.  This  tray  is 
made  of  four  to  five  inch  posts,  and  its  size  is  gov 


Fig.  128. 

erned  by  the  quantity  of  milk  of  the  tubs  to  be  used; 
but  these  tubs  generally  hold  from  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  cans.  The  milk  is  immediately  set 
with  the  requisite  quantity  of  rennet,  usually  one  quar- 
ter of  a  can  to  one  hundred  cans  of  milk ;  and  if  it  does 
not  "  come  v  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  more  rennet  is 
added. 

When  it  has  properly  curdled,  it  is  stirred  in  all  direc- 
tions with  a  wooden  ladle  three  or  four  times  over,  and 


HOT    AND     COLD    WATER.  341 

somewhat  broken  up,  when  it  is  allowed  to  stand  three 
or  four  minutes  at  rest.  It  is  then  gently  and  constantly 
stirred  again,  with  the  ladle  or  the  hands,  and  broken. 
By  too  active  stirring  one  gets  more  whey  than  cheese, 
and  very  quick  stirring  must  be  avoided.  The  whey  is 
then  allowed  to  stand  some  time,  by  which  the  curdled 
cheese  particles  collect,  and  the  whey  appears  on  the 
surface,  and  can  be  taken  off  and  poured  into  a  tub 
made  for  the  purpose.  To  the  mass  still  remaining  in 
the  kettle,  which  is  now  almost  all  cheesy  matter,  as 
much  hot  water  is  added  as  is  sufficient  to  warm  it  prop 
erly.  The  addition  of  hot  water  must  be  made  with 
discretion,  however,  and  must  not  exceed,  a  certain 
amount,  which  can  be  learned  only  by  practice.  The 
more  we  add,  the  drier  will  the  cheese  become  after  a 
while  ;  and,  though  it  may  keep  the  better,  and  be  better 
for  transportation,  the  taste  is  unquestionably  injured  by 
it.  The  cold-made  cheese  is  far  more  liable  to  injury 
from  keeping,  but  is  much  richer  and  more  palatable, 
on  which  account  the  best  is  generally  eaten  fresh.  The 
quantity  of  hot  water  to  be  added  for  warming  the  milk 
must  therefore  be  determined  somewhat  by  the  disposi 
tion  to  be  made  of  the  cheese. 

When  the  hot  water  has  stood,  say  half  an  hour,  on 
the  curd,  it  is  taken  off  and  poured  into  the  whey.  The 
curd  is  now  properly  brought  together  by  the  hands  or 
a  ladle,  and  again  thoroughly  worked  and  broken.  After 
standing  at  rest  a  short  time,  the  water  and  whey  are 
turned  off  again,  as  completely  as  possible,  in  the  whey- 
tub.  The  mass  of  curd  still  remaining  in  the  vat,  now 
called  wrongel,  is  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  which  are 
very  carefully  worked  over,  and  then  pressed  into  the 
wooden  cheese-mould.  In  order  to  get  a  very  fine  sep- 
aration of  the  curd,  only  a  small  quantity  is  taken  at  once 
from  the  vat,  which  is  rubbed  in  the  hands,  and  then 
29* 


342  DETAILS     OF     PRESSING. 

pressed  into  the  mould  till  it  is  quite  full.  The  cheese- 
mould  is  in  the  form  of  a  bowl,  made  of  willow  wood; 
with  its  lower  part  pierced  with  holes,  so  that  the  whey 
can  run  off  when  the  pressure  is  applied.  The  cheese 
now  formed  is  taken  out  carefully,  rubbed  with  the 
hands,  and  still  further  worked  in  the  cheese-tub,  and 
again  very  firmly  pressed  into  the  mould  with  the  hands. 
To  be  able  to  press  it  into  the  mould  with  greater 
power,  an  implement  called  the  presser  is  used.  It  con- 
sists of  a  short  stick,  with  a  kind  of  handle  or  cross- 
piece  on  the  upper  end.  On  the  lower  end  a  disc  is 
fixed  which  fits  into  the  cheese-mould.  In  using  the 
instrument,  the  disc  is  placed  on  the  cheese  to  be  pressed 
into  the  mould,  the  handle  or  cross-piece  is  placed 
against  the  chest  or  shoulders,  and  the  operator  presses 
down  at  the  same  time  with  his  hands,  thrusting  the 
disc  as  deeply  as  possible  into  the  cheese-mould.  When 
pressed  enough  on  one  side,  it  is  turned  round  in  the 
mould,  bringing  the  other  side  up,  and  the  pressure  is 
again  applied  as  strongly  as  possible.  For  saving  the 
whey  in  cheese-pressing,  the  mould  is  set  into  a  pan  only 
a  little  larger  than  the  mould  itself,  which  catches  the 
whey  running  out  from  the  mould.  When  the  cheese 
in  the  mould  is  properly  pressed  by  hand,  the  cover  is 
put  upon  the  mould,  which  is  loaded  gradually,  in  order 
to  bring  down  the  greatest  possible  pressure.  The 
weight  or  pressure  is  greater  or  less  according  to  the 
size  of  the  cheese  ;  yet  during  the  pressure  the  cheese 
must  be  frequently  turned,  that  it  may  get  the  right  form. 
The  gradual  increase  of  the  pressure  goes  on  for 
twenty-four  hours,  when  the  cheese  is  taken  from  the 
mould  to  be  laid  in  a  tub  of  salt-brine  in  the  cellar ;  the 
cellar  must  be  kept  cool.  The  cheese  remains  in  the 
brine  twenty-four  hours,  but  is  turned  once  in  that  time. 
It  is  then  taken  out  and  put  upon  a  table,  the  surface 


THE     LIGHT    AND    AIR.  343 

of  which  is  inclined,  the  legs  of  one  end  being  longer 
than  those  of  the  other.  On  both  sides  of  the  inclined 
table  run  grooves  in  the  direction  of  the  inclination  of 
the  surface,  which  unite  at  the  lower  end,  and  serve  as  a 
way  of  escape  for  the  brine  or  pickle  into  a  tub  below. 
Here  the  cheese  is  rubbed  with  salt,  and  a  handful  of 
salt  is  scattered  over  the  top,  when  it  is  left  standing 
for  some  time  "  in  the  salt."  If  one  side  was  rubbed 
ia  the  morning,  it  is  turned  at  evening;  and  the  other 
side  is  served  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first.  A  cheese 
of  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  pounds  remains  standing  thus 
four  or  five  days,  according  to  the  temperature.  If  the 
heat  is  great,  it  must  stand  the  longer  in  the  salt.  When 
sufficiently  salted,  it  is  washed  off  in  hot  water,  and  taken 
to  the  cheese-room,  where  it  is  daily  turned  on  dry,  clean 
shelves.  If  it  is  still  greasy  or  dauby  on  the  outside, 
it  is  still  further  washed  in  water,  and  dried  off  with  a 
coarse  linen  towel. 

The  cheese-room  is  generally  kept  closed  by  day  to 
keep  out  the  light  and  sun,  which  are  not  good  for 
cheese.  It  is  opened  in  the  morning  and  evening  to  let 
in  a  little  cooling  air  ;  yet  a  strong  breeze  is  avoided  by 
opening  all  the  doors  and  windows  at  the  same  time, 
for  the  cheese  will  crack  and  break  open  if  exposed  to  it. 

Sweet  milk  cheese  is  fit  for  use  at  the  age  of  four 
weeks.  Strongly  salted  cheese  does  not  ripen  up  so 
quickly  as  that  which  is  salted  less ;  but,  if  it  takes 
longer,  the  loss  is  less,  and,  on  that  account,  it  is  pre- 
ferred for  sending  off  to  less  salted  cheese,  which,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  richer,  and  has  a  little  better  taste. 
In  the  daily  turning  of  the  cheese,  great  care  is  taken 
to  observe  any  little  specks  in  it  where  the  mites  con- 
ceal themselves.  As  soon  as  such  places  are  discovered, 
a  hole  is  dug  out  with  a  knife  as  deep  as  they  extend 
into  the  cheese.     The  holes  are  left  open  till  the  next 


344  EFFECT    OF    GREAT     HEAT. 

day,  when,  if  no  more  mites  appear,  they  are  stopped 
up  with  other  cheese.  But,  if  they  still  appear,  some 
pounded  pepper  is  put  into  the  holes,  which  destroys 
them.  Rotten  or  moist  spots  on  the  cheese  are  treated 
in  the  same  way,  but  very  deep  holes  have  to  be  made 
into  the  cheese,  and  it  is  best  to  cover  them  with 
buckwheat-meal,  when  they  dry  up  very  quickly. 

In  very  hot  weather  it  sometimes  happens  that  the 
cheese  swells  up  and  begins  to  ferment.  Then  it  is  laid 
on  the  cleanly-scoured  pavement  of  the  cheese-room, 
where  it  is  cooler  ;  or,  as  many  do,  pierced  pretty  deeply 
with  holes  with  a  knitting-needle,  which  often  helps  it. 
With  the  decrease  of  the  great  heat  of  the  sun,  the 
swelling  also  ceases.  The  cheese  is  not  injured  except 
in  appearance,  the  taste  being  improved.  But,  if  the 
swelling  is  very  considerable,  it  makes  the  cheese  hol- 
low. If  the  milk  and  cheese  dishes  are  not  very  cleanly 
washed  and  rinsed  out,  the  cheese  gets  a  wrinkled  crust, 
and  begins  to  ferment, 

Sweet  milk  cheese,  three  or  four  months  old,  is  turned 
and  aired  only  once  a  week  in  dry  weather.  Many 
cheese-makers  also  sprinkle  the  cheeses  daily,  for  a  week 
or  two  after  they  are  fourteen  days  old,  with  beer  and 
vinegar,  or  with  vinegar  in  which  saffron  has  been 
extracted,  by  which  it  gets  not  only  a  beautiful  yellow 
color,  but  is  also  protected  from  flies. 

The  Use  of  the  Whey  of  Sweet  Milk  Cheese. — 
On  what  remains  of  the  milk  devoted  to  the  making  of 
sweet  milk  cheese  in  the  manner  above  described,  or  the 
whey  which  runs  off  in  the  pressing  of  the  cheese, 
there  forms,  after  it  has  stood  a  few  days,  a  fine  creamy 
skin,  which  is  carefully  taken  off  with  a  wooden  spoon, 
put  in  a  clean  jar,  and  stirred  from  time  to  time.  This 
cream  is  collected  to  make  butter,  and  it  can  be  done 
once  a  week.     This  butter-whey  is  healthful  and  good. 


MAY     CHEESE.  —  NEW    MILK'S     CHEESE.         345 

to  be  sure  ;  but,  on  the  whole,  is  not  so  fine  and  delicate 
flavored  as  good  cream  butter,  and  on  this  account  is 
cheaper. 

The  butter-milk  which  comes  from  the  churning  of 
the  cream  of  whey  is  a  good  food  for  swine.  They 
greatly  relish  it. 

Whey  is  also  sold  as  a  beverage,  and  is  called  "  sweet, 
whey."  When  fresh  and  untainted,  it  is  quite  an  agree- 
able drink,  very  cooling,  and  good  for  the  health  in 
spring,  purifying  the  blood,  though  somewhat  purgative 
in  its  effect  on  the  kidneys.  Later  in  summer,  when  the 
heat  is  very  great,  whey  is  thought  to  be  rather  injuri- 
ous to  the  health  than  otherwise.  It  is  then  used 
exclusively  for  swine. 

May  Cheese.  —  In  the  early  part  of  summer,  when 
the  grass  is  best,  sweet  milk  cheese  is  made  in  precisely 
the  same  way  as  that  described,  yet  of  smaller  size  and 
less  weight.  This  is  called  May  cheese,  and  is  designed 
for  immediate  use  or  sale  when  ripe,  as  it  will  not  keep, 
and  easily  loses  its  fine  flavor. 

Jews'  Cheese. — Another  kind  of  sweet  milk  cheese 
is  the  Jews'  cheese.  It  differs  from  common  sweet  milk 
cheese  in  its  form,  which  is  flatter  and  thinner,  and 
partly  in  being  less  salted,  and  of  a  much  looser  texture. 
It  is  but  little  made  ;  but  some  dairies  are  devoted  to  it. 

Council's  Cheese.  —  This  is  made  as  the  common 
sweet  milk  cheese,  only  in  much  smaller  moulds.  It 
has  also  a  peculiar  color.  It  is  allowed  to  get  rather 
old  before  it  is  relished,  and  is  then  mostly  given  away. 

New  Milk's  Cheese.  —  This  is  made  in  winter,  when 
the  cows  are  in  the  stall.  It  is  not  so  good  as  grass 
cheese,  which  is  made  in  summer,  when  the  cows  are  at 
pasture,  and  is  less  relished,  and  brings  a  lower  price. 
When  the  cows  are  brought  to  the  barn  late  in  the  fall, 
it  can  be  made  of  very  good  quality  for  a  few  days  ; 


346        CHEESE-MAKING     I-N    NORTH     HOLLAND. 

but  the  longer  the  c.ow  remains  in  the  stall  the  more 
the  milk  loses  its  good  quality  for  cheese,  on  which 
account  but  few  of  the  larger  dairies  make  cheese  at  all 
in  winter. 

To  make  it  appear  to  buyers  more  like  grass-made 
cheese,  and  to  be  able  to  sell  it,  it  is  colored  with  the 
same  material,  and  it  is  then  often  very  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish it,  since  great  pains  is  taken  to  give  the  two 
kinds  the  same  form,  hardness  of  rind,  etc.  The  dairy- 
men have  less  to  do  with  this  deception  than  the  deal- 
ers. Hay  cheese  is  rather  better  in  quality  for  coloring, 
since  it  gains  in  appearance  and  taste  ;  but  it  never  can 
equal  grass-made  cheese  in  fine  qualities. 

Cheese-making  in  North  Holland.  —  In  the  province 
of  North  Holland  sweet  milk  cheese  is  made  almost 
exclusively.  From  ancient  times  this  particular  branch 
of  farming  has  been  carried  to  great  extent ;  but  it  has 
especially  grown  in  importance  since  the  province 
gained  a  firm  soil  by  artificial  draining.  At  the  present 
time  North  Holland  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  cheese- 
trade  ;  and  it  is  easily  explained  in  the  fact  that  no 
other  province  has  more  or  better  cattle.  The  manu- 
facture of  cheese  is  almost  the  only  object  of  keeping 
cattle,  and  the  North  Dutch  dairy  farmer  applies  him- 
self with  the  greatest  possible  zeal  to  the  most  careful 
modes  of  cheese-making,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  ancient 
reputation  of  his  cheeses,  both  in  the  domestic  and 
foreign  markets,  and  to  secure  to  himself  all  of  the 
advantages  springing  from  it. 

The  quantity  of  cheese  which  is  weekly  sold  in  the 
markets  of  Alkmaar,  Hoorn,  Edam,  Purmerend,  Meden- 
blik,  Enkhuizen,  etc.,  is  enormous.  We  cite  Alkmaar 
alone  as  an  example,  where  on  the  city  scales  there  were 
weighed  no  less  than  23,859,258  Netherlandish  pounds 
(536,834,830   pounds,  American),  from   1758   to   1830. 


NORTH    DUTCH    CHEESE.  347 

Since  that  time  the  manufacture  has  increased,  so  that 
from  three  to  four  million  Netherland  pounds  are 
annually  brought  to  the  Alkmaar  market.  But,  besides 
this,  a  large  quantity  of  cheese  does  not  come  into  the 
market,  but  is  sold  at  the  dairy  without  passing  through 
the  hands  of  the  traders,  and  never  comes  to  the  city 
scales. 

In  1843  there  were  sold  in  the  North  Dutch  cheese- 
markets  22,385,812  pounds,  to  say  nothing  of  the  large 
quantity  sold  directly  from  the  dairy.  It  is  easy  to 
see,  therefore,  how  important  and  extensive  an  interest 
the  manufacture  of  cheese  has  become  for  this  province. 
Of  the  twenty-two  million  pounds  annually  exported, 
the  value  may  be  estimated  as  at  least  three  million 
Dutch  guilders.  The  price  and  value  of  the  cheese 
vary,  of  course,  with  the  markets. 

The  North  Dutch  cheese  differs  somewhat  in  quality 
and  money  value,  according  to  the  section  where  it  is 
made  ;  but  in  general  that  made  in  the  region  about 
Hoorn  is  considered  the  best,  as  is  very  natural,  since 
in  that  vicinity  are  to  be  found  the  finest  meadows  and 
pastures  in  the  province.  .  The  villages  of  Ooster- 
blokker,  Westerwoude,  Hoogecarspel,  and  Twisk,  are 
distinguished  above  all  others ;  and  so  are  the  pastures 
of  Beemster,  Purmer,  and  Schermer,  almost  equally  so. 

The  Dutch  cheese-maker  reckons  twelve  Nether- 
land cans  of  milk  to  a  pound — two  and  a  quarter 
pounds  American  —  of  cheese,  according  to  which  a 
cow  in  three  hundred  days  would  give  from  eighteen 
hundred  to  two  thousand  cans  of  milk,  or  usually  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  seventy-five 
Netherland  pounds  of  cheese,  in  a  year. 

The  Utensils  used  in  Cheese-making  in  North  Hol- 
land are  nearly  the  same  as  those  already  described  for 
saving    the    milk   for   butter,  and   those    used   in   the 


348      VARIETIES     OF    NORTH     DUTCH     CHEESE. 

various  processes  of  cheese-making  in  South  Holland. 
The)7  are  modified  to  some  extent,  to  be  sure,  by  the 
taste,  the  pride,  the  wealth,  or  the  caprice,  of  each  dairy- 
man. Many  of  them  are  painted,  wholly  or  in  part,  in 
oil  colors,  for  the  sake  of  durability  as  well  as  cleanli- 
ness, on  which  the  North  Dutch  dairyman  lays  great 
stress.     They  do  not  require  much  capital. 

Variety  of  North  Dutch  Cheeses,  and  the  Trade 
in  them.  —  The  North  Dutch  cheese  is  called  sweet 
milk  cheese,  and  also,  pretty  commonly,  white  cheese, 
where  it  is  made  ;  but  in  Germany  it  is  called  Edamer, 
less  because  the  best  is  made  in  the  vicinity  of  this 
city  than  because  the  largest  trade  in  it  is  carried  on 
there. 

All  sweet  milk  cheese  has  not  the  same  weight, 
form,  and  size.  Many  kinds  of  it  come  into  the  market 
under  different  names ;  as,  for  example,  large  cheese 
of  20  to  24  pounds  (45  to  54  pounds),  Malbollen  of 
16  pounds  (36  pounds),  medium  of  10  to  12  pounds  (22 
to  27  pounds),  Commission's  of  6  or  7  pounds  (14  to  16 
pounds),  and  little  ones  of  4  pounds  (9  pounds),  to  which 
belong  the  Jews'  cheese.  .Besides  this,  the  making  of 
English  cheese  is  carried  on.  Malbollen  is  but  little  made. 
It  is  of  about  twenty  pounds  weight.  Fifty  years  ago 
large  quantities  of  it  came  into  market,  and  were  sold 
mostly  in  North  Brabant  and  the  Rhine  provinces.  Of 
the  medium  cheese  the  manufacture  is  pretty  extensive 
at  the  present  time,  and  it  is  sold  to  go  to  North  Brabant 
chiefly.  The  price  of  these  sorts  is  more  frequently 
fluctuating  than  that  of  the  smaller  ones  ;  but  less  so 
than  that  of  Commission's  cheese,  which  is  not  much 
made.  These  varieties  in  former  years  were  very  profit- 
able, since  they  were  made  with  little  labor,  being  light 
and  spongy  from  slight  pressing  and  little  salting,  and 
were  sold  green. 


MAKING    OF    EDAM     CHEESE.  349 

Dairy  industry  is  now  chiefly  devoted  to  making 
the  varieties  most  known  and  sought  for  in  Germany, 
the  Edam  small  sweet  milk  cheeses,  which  are  sent  in 
enormous  quantities  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  There 
are  two  varieties  of  Edam  cheese  in  the  market,  one 
with  a  white,  the  other  with  a  red  rind.  The  latter  is 
firm,  more  of  a  yellowish  color  inside,  and  colored  out- 
side. The  coloring  matter  is  prepared  in  France  for 
this  special  purpose.  By  this  treatment  the  cheese  is 
better  adapted  to  transportation.  The  early  red  rind 
cheese  is  the  finest  and  best.  It  is  made  in  spring  from 
milk  fresh  and  warm  from  cows  just  turned  to  pasture, 
and  is  exported  mostly  to  Italy,  Spain,  and  America. 
That  made  later  in  summer  is  not  so  good,  and  goes  to 
France ;  the  red  rind,  made  still  later  in  the  fall,  goes 
to  England  and  Brabant.  Cheese  that  is  injured,  or 
does  not  keep  well,  is  sold  mostly  in  Hamburg  and 
Brabant. 

Making  of  Edam  Cheese.  —  The  Edam  is  a  rich  sweet 
milk  cheese,  that  is  made  from  fresh,  unskimmed  milk. 
The  milk,  while  still  warm  from  the  cow,  is  poured  into 
a  large  tub  or  a  kettle  through  the  strainer.  In  cold 
weather,  when  it  has  cooled  off  in  standing  in  the  air, 
it  is  warmed  to  a  proper  degree  by  adding  milk  heated 
by  the  fire.  The  rennet  is  then  added.  This  is  pre- 
pared in  the  following  manner:  The  maw  of  the  nursing- 
calf,  cut  into  long  strips,  is  soaked  for  twenty-four 
hours  in  sweet  whey,  when  it  is  made  lukewarm  over 
a  slow  fire,  whey  and  all,  and  three  times  the  quantity 
of  cheese-brine,  or  solution  of  the  salt  of  the  cheese, 
added.  The  mass  is  then  allowed  to  stand  four  days, 
when  it  is  fit  for  use.  An  exact  determination  of  the 
quantity  of  rennet  to  be  used  cannot  well  be  given,, 
since  the  quantity  depends  on  the  quality  ;  but  usually 
about  two  hundred  cans  of  milk  to  one  fifth  of  a  can 
30 


350  THE    RENNET.  —  SETTLING. 

of  rennet  is  the  proportion,  taking  more  or  less,  accord 
ing  to  the  strength  of  the  rennet. 

The  milk  in  the  tub  to  which  the  rennet  has  been 
added  is  covered  over  and  allowed  to  stand  till  it  is 
curdled,  or  become  hard,  which  usually  requires  a 
quarter  of  an  hour.  The  curdled  milk  is  then  called 
"  glib."  It  is  now  slowly  but  regularly  stirred,  with  a 
shallow,  long-handled  cheese-spoon,  in  all  directions. 

Some  cheese-makers  treat  the  milk  in  the  following 
manner :  They  stir  the  milk,  thrusting  an  inverted 
cheese-ladle  into  the  curdling  mass  every  two  or  three 
minutes  after  adding  the  rennet,  by  which  the  curdling 
is  much  hastened.  Now  they  move  the  ladle  or  cheese- 
stick  three  or  four  times  with  considerable  force  through 
the  thickening  milk,  and  lay  it,  inverted,  on  the  surface 
of  the  milk,  covering  the  vat  for  ten  or  twelve  minutes, 
when  the  mass  is  again  set  in  motion,  and  then  again 
allowed  to  stand!  By  this  means  the  cheese  particles 
settle  to  the  bottom,  and  the  whey  rises  to  the  top. 

When,  after  these  alternate  stirrings  and  rest  of  the 
curdling  milk,  the  solid  particles  have  settled,  and  the 
whey  is  collected  on  top,  the  latter  is  turned  off,  as  care- 
fully as  possible,  into  the  whey-tub.  In  order  the  better 
to  settle  the  cheesy  parts,  and  to  cause  the  whey  to  come 
up,  the  cheese-stick  is  loaded  with  weights  or  stones,  by 
which  the  whey  is  separated  in  the  pressure  upon  the 
curd.  Some  minutes  after,  the  whey  is  again  turned 
off,  the  whole  mass  is  properly  stirred,  and  the  curd  is 
collected  with  the  cheese-stick  and  worked  with  the 
hands,  and  the  whey  is  again  carefully  turned  off.  The 
curd,  now  become  thick,  is  taken  out  of  the  vat,  piece 
by  piece,  and  broken  with  the  hands  as  finely  as  pos- 
sible, in  order  to  fill  as  much  into  the  cheese-moulds  as 
will  just  make  a  cheese.  The  moulds  are  set.  into  the 
cheese-vat,  and  the  curd  is  worked  and  pressed  closely  in 


TIME    OF    PRESSING.  351 

with  the  hand,  to  remove  the  wney  as  much  as  possible. 
The  cheese  is  then  taken  out  of  the  mould,  and  again  very 
finely  crumbled  in  the  vat,  and,  after  the  whey  is  again 
turned  off  through  the  strainer,  is  pressed  the  second 
time  into  the  mould,  so  that  it  is  as  full  of  cheese  as  it 
can  possibly  be.  It  is  then  turned  in  the  mould  so 
that  the  upper  side  goes  down,  when  it  is  again  firmly 
pressed  in.     The  turning  is  repeated  several  times. 

In  the  making  of  large  and  medium  cheeses  the 
presser  is  used,  while  space  left  empty  by  the  press- 
ure is  again  filled  with  curd,  so  that  the  mould  is  always 
full,  and  the  cheese  gets  its  requisite  size.  In  the 
smaller  or  four-pound  cheeses,  the  hands  alone  are  used 
for  this  pressing  into  the  mould.  The  mould,  now 
pressed  full,  is  put  into  a  tub,  properly  washed  in 
whey,  and  cleansed  of  all  remaining  fat.  By  the  wash- 
ing and  smoothing  the  cheese  must  get  a  glossy  and 
smooth  rind.  After  this  is  done,  the  cheese  is  again 
taken  out  of  the  mould,  wrapped  in  a  clean  linen  cloth, 
put  in  again,  and  covered  over  and  brought  under  the 
press,  that  it  may  become  harder  and  firmer,  and  that 
the  whey  may  run  off. 

Jn  hot  weather  the  cheese  is  left  under  the  press  five 
hours,  from  nine  in  the  morning  till  two  in  the  after- 
noon; but,  if  it  is  cool,  it  must  stand  longer.  There  are 
several  different  objects  in  view  in  deciding  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  pressure.  Many  think  two  or  three 
hours  sufficient,  whilst  others  press  five  hours.  Cheese 
designed  for  export  is  pressed  longer,  or  twelve  hours. 

It  takes  from  three  to  four  hours,  usually,  from  the 
pouring  in  of  the  milk  to  the  bringing  of  the  cheese 
under  the  press  ;  but  it  can  be  done  in  two  or  two  and 
a  half  hours  without  injuring  the  cheese. 

After  the  first  pressing  is  finished,  the  cheese  is  put 
into  another  mould,  rounder  than  the  first,  and  with 


352  PRACTICAL    DETAILS. 

only  one  hole  in  the  bottom,  to  lie  in  the  salt.  In  many 
places  a  long  trough  is  used,  in  which  several  such 
moulds  are  placed  to  be  salted  at  the  same  time;  and 
for  this  either  dry  salt  or  pickle  (brine,  or  salt  in  solu- 
tion) is  used.  The  pickle  is  most  commonly  used,  and 
is  thought  best.  When  one  side  of  the  cheese  has  laid 
some  hours  in  the  brine,  it  is  turned,  and  the  other  side 
is  also  salted.  After  a  while  it  is  salted  or  turned  in 
the  brine  but  once  a  day.  Small  four-pound  cheeses 
remain  nine  days  in  hot  weather,  and  in  cold  ten  or 
twelve  days,  in  the  salt ;  medium  ones  of  ten  to  twelve 
pounds  must  lie  at  least  three  weeks.  In  very  hot 
weather  they  are  often  salted  twice  a  day.  The  moulds 
with  the  salted  cheese  are  placed,  several  together,  into 
the  cheese-vat  where  the  brine  is,  or  on  a  salting-tray 
where  the  brine  is  collected  in  a  tub  beneath.  After 
being  finally  salted,  they  are  washed  perfectly  clean 
with  water  or  warm  whey.  Many  put  their  cheeses 
from  the  brine  immediately  in  a  kettle  of  hot  whey  for 
some  minutes,  and  wash  them  in  it.  All  unevenness  or 
roughness  got  in  pressing  in  the  mould  is  now  scraped 
off  with  a  knife. 

After  the  washing,  the  cheeses  are  again  perfectly 
dried,  and  laid  on  the  shelves  in  the  cheese-room,  where 
they  are  daily  turned,  and  remain  from  two  to  four,  and 
even  five  weeks.  The  cheese  is  now  salable;  but  before 
it  is  packed  or  delivered  it  is  laid  for  some  hours  to 
soak  in  pure,  cold  spring  or  well  water,  the  smallest 
for  three  hours,  the  medium  four,  and  the  largest  five 
hours.  The  cheese  is  then  well  cleaned  with  the  cheese- 
brush,  laid  on  the  shelf  in  the  store-room,  and  turned  a 
week  or  more,  daily.  But,  in  order  to  give  them  a  fine 
yellow  color,  in  damp  weather,  especially,  the  poorer 
ones  are,  by  many  dairymen,  laid  a  good  ways  apart, 
and  sprinkled  or  washed  daily  with  new  beer.     When 


COLOR     OP    EDAM    CHEESE.  353 

the  cheese  is  to  be  sold,  it  is  properly  washed  still  again 
in  hot  whey,  and  rubbed  with  a  woolen  cloth  a  day 
before  sending  to  market,  with  hot  or  cold  linseed-oil, 
by  which  the  outside  of  the  cheese  gets  a  fine  glow ; 
but  it  must  be  rubbed  till  no  fat  or  oil  is  to  be  felt. 

The  Red  Color  of  Edam  Cheese.  —  After  the  dairy- 
man has  sold  his  cheese  to  the  merchant,  it  is  colored 
by  him  quite  red.  It  will  not  be  uninteresting  to  many 
readers  to  know  some  of  the  details  of  this  peculiar 
color. 

Edam  cheese  is  colored  with  what  is  called  tournesol, 
which  is  extracted  from  a  plant  ( Croton  tindorium). 
This  is  an  annual,  which  grows  wild  in  France,  in  great 
abundance,  in  the  vicinity  of  Montpelier,  in  Langue- 
doc ;  and  around  Aix,  in  Provence,  large  commons  are 
sown  with  it.  The  seed  is  sown  in  March  and  April. 
From  a  white  and  straight  tap  root,  it  sends  up  a  stalk 
something  like  six  inches  high,  which  divides  into  many 
branches.  The  leaves  have  very  long  stems,  of  a  pale 
green  color.  The  flower-stalks  spring  up  from  between 
the  branches,  and  bear  flowers  in  fan-shaped  clusters. 
The  vegetation  of  the  plant  continues  four  months. 

The  preparation  of  the  tournesol  is  as  follows  :  The 
plants  are  collected  late  in  summer,  the  roots  thrown 
away,  and  the  other  parts  taken  to  a  mill,  where  they 
are  ground,  and  the  juice  pressed  out.  Into  this  juice 
the  rags  of  old  hempen  cloth  are  dipped  till  they 
are  soaked  full,  when  they  are  hung  up  to  dry  in  the 
sun.  When  they  are  dry  they  are  laid  on  a  tray  over 
a  tub  filled  with  urine,  in  which  carbonate  of  lime  has 
been  dissolved,  so  that  the  edges  hang  over  the  rim  of 
the  tub  on  which  they  rest.  The  vapor  from  the  solu- 
tion of  lime  must  penetrate  the  rags,  and  this  gives 
them  a  violet  color,  when  they  are  taken  off  and  dried 
again,  to  be  replaced  till  they  are  fully  colored. 
30*  23 


354  USE    OF    THE    WHEY. 

The  tournesol  rags  have  become  an  article  of  com- 
merce, for  which  France  receives  annually  from  Holland 
from  100,000  to  200,000  guilders  (from  $38,000  to 
$76,000). 

To  give  the  Edam  cheeses  the  red  rind,  they  are 
rubbed  with  these  tournesol  rags,  from  which  they  get 
the  dark  violet  color ;  and  after  they  are  dried  they  are 
again  rubbed,  which  gives  them  a  glowing  red. 

It  is  an  excellent  peculiarity  of  the  tournesol  rags 
that  they  not  only  impart  the  color  to  Edam  cheese,  to 
which  people  abroad  are  so  accustomed,  but  that  they 
keep  the  insects  from  the  cheese,  whilst  the  coloring 
matter  does  not  penetrate  inside,  but  remains  on  the 
rind.  Substitutes  for  it  have  been  repeatedly  sought, 
but  not  found;  nor  have  the  attempts  made  to  grow  the 
plant  in  Holland  proved  successful. 

Use  of  the  Whey  of  the  North  Dutch  Sweet  Milk 
Cheese.  —  The  whey  obtained  in  making  cheese  in 
North  Holland  is  collected  in  large  tubs.  The  sweet, 
agreeable  taste  of  the  whey  is  soon  lost  when  it  is  set 
to  obtain  the  fatty  particles  still  remaining  in  it.  The 
cream  which  forms  on  it  is  daily  taken  off  with  a  skim- 
mer, put  into  a  cream-pot,  and  when  it  is  collected  in 
sufficient  quantity  it  is  made  into  whey  butter. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

LETTER     TO     A     DAIRY-WOMAN. 

In  the  earlier  chapters  of  this  work  I  have  spoken 
to  farmers  and  dairymen  of  the  selection,  care,  and 
management,  of  dairy  stock.  The  seventh,  eighth,  and 
ninth  chapters  relate  more  especially  to  your  depart- 
ment, and  on  your  application  and  skill  will  depend 
chiefly  the  successful  result  of  the  dairy  establishment. 
Of  what  avail  are  costly  barns,  well-selected  cows,  and 
judicious  feeding,  in  the  butter  and  cheese  dairy,  if  the 
products  are  to  be  depreciated  in  value  by  the  imper- 
fect modes  of  preparing  them  for  the  market,  where  the 
final  judgment  is  passed  upon  them,  and  where  it  is 
expected  the  price  will  be  according  to  their  value  ? 

You  have,  doubtless,  had  a  much  greater  practical 
knowledge  and  experience  of  the  details  of  dair) 
management  than  I  have.  For  this  practice  and  experi- 
ence I  have  the  utmost  respect ;  but  I  have  not  spoken 
without  a  knowledge  of  the  subject.  I  have  made  many 
a  cheese,  and  many  a  pound  of  butter,  while  my  ob- 
servations have  extended  over  all  the  most  important 
dairy  districts  of  the  country,  and  have  not  been  limited 
to  the  practices  of  any  one  section,  which,  however 
good  in  themselves,  may  not  be  the  best.  I  trust,  there- 
fore, you  will  excuse  me  for  calling  your  attention  to  the 
more  important  points  to  which  I  have  alluded ;  and,  if 
my  conclusions  happen  to  differ  from  your  own,  in  any 


356  A    DRUG     IN    THE    MARKET. 

respect,  that  you  will  not  discard  them  as  worthless,  ' 
without    first    bringing    them   to    the   test   of   careful 
experiment,  when  I   trust  they  will  be  found  correct. 

I  have  not  written  to  establish  any  favorite  theory, 
but  simply  to  inculcate  truth,  and  to  aid  in  developing 
a  most  important  branch  of  American  industry,  which, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  involves  the  investment 
of  a  vast  amount  of  capital,  the  aggregate  profits  of 
which  depend  so  largely  on  your  judgment  and  skill. 

I  need  not  remind  you  that  any  addition,  however 
small,  to  the  market  value  of  each  pound  of  butter  or 
cheese,  will  largely  increase  the  annual  income  of  your 
establishment.  Nor  need  I  remind  you  that  these  arti- 
cles are  generally  the  last  of  either  the  luxuries  or 
the  necessaries  of  life  in  which  city  customers  are  will- 
ing to  economize.  They  must  and  will  have  a  good 
article,  and  are  ready  to  pay  for  it  in  proportion  to  its 
goodness ;  or,  if  they  desire  to  economize  in  butter,  it 
will  be  in  the  quantity  rather  than  the  quality. 

Poor  butter  is  a  drug  in  the  market.  Nobody  wants 
it,  and  the  dealer  often  finds  it  difficult  to  get  it  off  his 
hands,  when  a  delicate  and  finely-flavored  article  attracts 
attention  and  secures  a  ready  sale.  Some  say  that  poor 
butter  will  do  for  cooking.  But  a  good  steak  or  mutton- 
chop  is  too  expensive  to  allow  any  one  to  spoil  it  by  the 
use  of  a  poor  quality  of  butter ;  and  good  pastry-cooks 
will  tell  you  that  cakes  and  pies  cannot  be  made  without 
good  sweet  butter,  and  plenty  of  it.  These  dishes  rel- 
ish too  well,  when  properly  cooked  with  nice  butter,  for 
any  one  to  tolerate  the  use  of  poor  butter  in  them. 

On  page  220  and  elsewhere,  I  have  dwelt  on  the 
necessity  of  extreme  cleanliness  in  all  the  operations 
of  the  dairy  ;  and  this  is  the  basis  and  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  your  business.  I  would  not  suppose,  for  a 
moment,  that  you  are  lacking  in  this    respect.      The 


CARE    AND    NEATNESS.  357 

enormous  quantities  of  disgusting,  streaky,  and  tallow- 
like butter  that  are  daily  thrust  upon  the  seaboard 
markets  must  be  due  to  the  carelessness  and  negligence 
of  heedless  men,  to  exposure  to  sun  and  rain,  to  bad 
packing,  and  to  delays  in  transportation.  Many  of  these 
evils  you  may  not  be  able  to  remove,  since  you  cannot 
follow  the  article  to  the  market,  and  see  that  it  arrives 
safely  and  untainted.  But  you  can  take  greater  pains, 
perhaps,  in  some  of  the  preliminary  processes  of 
making,  and  produce  an  article  that  will  not  be  so  liable 
to  injure  from  keeping  and  transportation  ;  and  then,  if 
fault  is  to  be  found,  it  does  not  rest  with  you. 

I  will  not  suggest  the  possibility  that  your  ideas  of 
cleanliness  and  neatness  may  be  at  fault ;  and  that  what 
may  seem  an  excess  of  nicety  and  scrubbing  to  you 
may  appear  to  be  almost  slovenliness  to  some  others, 
whose  butter  receives  the  highest  price  in  the  market, 
and  always  finds  the  readiest  sale.  Permit  me,  however, 
to  refer  you  to  pages  300, 324,  and  325,  where  a  detailed 
account  is  given  of  the  washings  in  water  and  washings 
in  alkali  ;  of  the  scrubbings,  and  the  scourings,  and  the 
scaldings,  arid  the  rinsings,  which  the  neat  and  tidy 
Dutch  dairy-women  give  all  the  utensils  of  the  dairy, 
from  the  pails  to  the  firkins  and  the  casks,  and  also  to 
their  extreme  carefulness  that  no  infectious  odor  rises 
from  the  surroundings.  I  think  you  will  see  that  it  is 
a  physical  impossibility  that  any  taint  can  affect  the  at- 
mosphere or  the  utensils  of  such  a  dairy,  and  that  many 
of  the  details  of  their  practice  may  be  worthy  of  imita- 
tion in  our  American  dairies. 

And  here  allow  me  to  suggest  that,  though  we  may 
not  approve  of  the  general  management  in  any  partic- 
ular section,  or  any  particular  dairy,  it  is  rare  that  there 
is  not  something  in  the  practice  of  that  section  that  is 
really  valuable  and  worthy  of  imitation. 


358  LETTER    TO     A     DAIEY-WOMAN. 

Od  pages  231  and  234  I  have  called  your  attention  to 
the  use  of  the  sponge  and  clean  cloth  for  absorbing 
and  removing  the  butter-milk  in  the  most  thorough  man- 
ner ;  this  I  regard  as  of  great  importance. 

I  have  stated  on  page  234  that,  under  ordinarily  favor- 
able circumstances,  from  twelve  to  eighteen  hours  will 
be  sufficient  to  raise  the  cream  ;  and  that  I  do  not  believe 
it  should  stand  over  twenty-four  hours  under  any  cir- 
cumstances. This,  I  am  aware,  is  very  different  from 
the  general  practice  over  the  country.  But,  if  you 
will  make  the  experiment  in  the  most  careful  manner, 
setting  the  pans  in  a  good,  airy  place,  and  not  upon  the 
cellar  bottom,  I  think  you  will  soon  agree  with  me  that 
all  you  get,  after  twelve  or  eighteen  hours,  under  the 
best  circumstances,  or  at  most  after  twenty-four  hours, 
will  detract  from  the  quality  and  injure  the  fine  and 
delicate  aroma  and  agreeable  taste  of  the  butter  to  a 
greater  extent  than  you  are  aware  of.  The  cream  which 
rises  from  milk  set  on  the  cellar  bottom  acquires  an 
acrid  taste,  and  can  neither  produce  butter  of  so  fine 
a  quality  or  so  agreeable  to  the  palate  as  that  which 
rises  from  milk  set  on  shelves  from  six  to  eight  feet 
high,  around  which  there  is  a  full  and  free  circulation  of 
pure  air.  The  latter  is  sweeter,  and  appears  in  much 
larger  quantities  in  the  same  time  than  the  former. 

If,  therefore,  you  devote  your  attention  to  the  making 
of  butter  to  sell  fresh  in  the  market,  and  desire  to 
obtain  a  reputation  which  shall  aid  and  secure  the  quick- 
est sale  and  the  highest  price,  you  will  use  cream  that 
rises  first,  and  that  does  not  stand  too  long  on  the  milk. 
You  will  churn  it  properly  and  patiently,  and  not  with 
too  great  haste.  You  will  work  it  so  thoroughly  and 
completely  with  the  butter-worker,  and  the  sponge  and 
cloth,  as  to  remove  every  particle  of  butter-milk,  never 
allowing  your  own  or  any  other  hands  to  touch  it.    You 


THE    TASTE     AND    THE    EYE.  359 

will  keep  it  at  a  proper  temperature  when  making,  and 
after  it  is  made,  by  the  judicious  use  of  ice,  and  avoid 
exposing  it  to  the  had  odors  of  a  musty  cellar.  You 
will  discard  the  use  of  artificial  coloring  or  flavoring  mat- 
ter, and  take  the  utmost  care  in  every  process  of  mak- 
ing. You  will  stamp  your  butter  tastefully  with  some 
mould  which  can  be  recognized  in  the  market  as  yours  ; 
as,  for  instance,  your  initials,  or  some  form  or  figure 
which  will  most  please  the  eye  and  the  taste  of  the 
customer.  You  will  send  it  in  boxes  so  perfectly  pre- 
pared and  cleansed  as  to  impart  no  taste  of  wood  to  the 
butter.  If  all  these  things  receive  due  attention,  my 
word  for  it,  the  initials  or  form  which  you  adopt  will 
be  inquired  after,  and  you  will  always  find  a  ready  and 
a  willing  purchaser  at  the  highest  market  price. 

But,  if  you  are  differently  situated,  and  it  becomes 
necessary  to  pack  and  sell  as  firkin-butter,  let  me  sug- 
gest the  necessity  of  an  equal  degree  of  nicety  and 
care  in  preparation,  and  that  you  insist,  as  one  of  your 
rights,  that  the  article  be  packed  in  the  best  of  oak- 
wood  firkins,  thoroughly  prepared  after  the  manner  of 
the  Dutch,  as  stated  on  page  325.  A  greater  attention 
to  these  points  would  make  the  butter  thus  packed 
worth  several  cents  a  pound  more  when  it  arrives  in 
the  market  than  it  ordinarily  is.  Indeed,  the  manner 
in  which  it  not  unfrequently  comes  to  market  is  a  dis- 
grace to  those  who  packed  it ;  and  it  cannot  be  that 
such  specimens  were  ever  put  up  by  the  hands  of  a 
dairy-woman.  I  have  often  seen  what  was  bought  for 
butter  open  so  marbled,  streaked,  and  rancid,  that  it  was 
scarcely  fit  to  use  on  the  wheels  of  a  carriage. 

If  you  adopt  the  course  which  I  have  recommended 
in  regard  to  skimming,  you  will  have  a  large  quantity 
of  sweet  skimmed  milk,  far  better  than  it  would  be  if 
allowed  to  stand  thirty-six  or  forty-eight  hours,  as  is  the 


360  REAPING    THE    ADVANTAGE. 

custom  with  many.  This  is  too  valuable  to  waste, 
and  it  is  my  opinion  that  you  can  use  it  to  far  greater 
profit  than  to  allow  it  to  be  fed  to  swine.  There  can 
be  no  question,  I  think,  that  cheese-making  should  be 
carried  on  at  the  same  time  with  the  making  of  butter. 
in  small  and  medium-sized  dairies.  You  have  seen, 
in  Chapter  XL,  that  some  of  the  best  cheese  of  Hol- 
land is  made  of  sweet  skim-milk.  The  reputation  of 
Parmesan  —  a  skim-milk  cheese  of  Italy,  page  266  —  is 
world-wide,  and  it  commands  a  high  price  and  ready 
sale.  The  mode  of  making  these  varieties  has  been 
described  in  detail  in  the  ninth  and  eleventh  chapters  ; 
and  you  can  imitate  them,  or,  perhaps,  improve  upon 
them,  and  thus  turn  the  skim-milk  to  a  very  profitable 
account,  if  it  is  sweet  and  good.  You  will  find,  if  you 
adopt  this  system,  that  your  butter  will  be  improved,  and 
that,  without  any  great  amount  of  extra  labor,  you  will 
make  a  large  quantity  of  very  good  cheese,  and  thus 
add  largely  to  the  profit  of  your  establishment,  and  to 
the  comfort  and  prosperity  of  your  family. 

But,  if  you  devote  all  your  attention  to  the  making 
of  cheese,  whether  it  is  to  be  sold  green,  or  as  soon  as 
ripe,  or  packed  for  exportation,  I  need  not  say  that 
the  same  neatness  is  required  as  in  the  making  of  but- 
ter. You  will  find  many  suggestions  in  the  preceding 
pages  on  the  mode  of  preparation  and  packing,  which 
I  trust  will  prove  to  be  valuable  and  applicable  to 
your  circumstances.  There  is  a  general  complaint 
among  the  dealers  in  cheese  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  a 
superior  article.  This  state  of  things  ought  not  to  ex- 
ist. I  hope  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  a  more 
general  attention  will  be  paid  to  the  details  of  manu- 
facture, and  let  me  remind  you  that  those  who  take  the 
first  steps  in  improvement  will  reap  the  greatest  advan- 
tages. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  PIGGERY  AS  A  PART  OF  THE  DAIRY  ESTAB- 
LISHMENT. 

The  keeping  of  swine  is  incidental  to  the  well-man- 
aged dairy,  and  both  the  farmer  and  the  dairyman  unite 
it,  to  some  extent,  with  other  branches  of  farming. 

In  the  regular  operations  of  the  dairy,  however  eco- 
nomically conducted,  there  will  always  be  more  or  less 
refuse  in  the  shape  of  whey,  butter-milk,  or  skim-milk, 
which  may  be  consumed  with  profit  by  swine,  and 
which  might  otherwise  be  lost.  Dairy-fed  pork  is  dis- 
tinguished for  its  fineness  and  delicacy ;  and  the  dairy 
refuse,  in  connection  with  grains,  potatoes,  and  scraps, 
is  highly  nutritious  and  fattening. 

There  is  a  wide  difference  between  the  profit  to  be 
derived  from  the  different  breeds.  Some  are  far  more 
thrifty  than  others,  and  arrive  at  maturity  earlier.  But 
the  choice  of  a  breed  will  depend,  to  considerable 
extent,  on  the  locality  and  the  object  in  view,  whether 
it  be  to  breed  for  sale  as  stock,  or  for  pork  or  bacon. 

To  get  desirable  crosses,  some  breeds  must  be  kept 
pare,  especially  in  the  hands  of  stock  breeders,  or  those 
who  raise  io  sell  as  pure-bred,  even  though  as  pure 
breeds  they  may  not  be  most  profitable  to  the  practical 
farmer  and  dairyman.  Those  who  confine  themselves 
to  the  pure  breeds,  therefore,  do  good  service  to  the 
community  of  farmers  and  dairymen,  who  can  avail 
themselves  of  the  results  of  their  experience  and  skill. 
31 


362  SUFFOLKS    AND    SUBSOILERS. 

I  think  it  will  generally  be  conceded  that  the  size  of 
the  male  is  of  less  importance  than  his  form,  his  tend- 
ency to  lay  on  large  amounts  of  fat  in  proportion  to 
the  food  he  eats,  or  his  early  maturity.  Smallness  of 
bone  and  compactness  of  form  indicate  early  maturity ; 
and  this  is  an  essential  element  in  the  calculations  of 
the  dairy  farmer,  who  generally  raises  for  pork  rather 
than  for  bacon,  and  whose  profit  will  consist  in  fatten- 
ing and  turning  early,  or,  at  most,  as  young  as  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  months.  A  fine  and  delicate  quality 
of  pork  is  at  the  present  time  highly  prized  in  the 
markets,  and  commands  the  highest  price.  For  bacon, 
a  much  larger  hog  is  preferred ;  but  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  cross  of  the  pure  Suffolk  or  Berkshire 
boar  and  the  large,  heavy  and  coarse  sow,  not  uncom- 
mon in  the  Western  States,  would  produce  an  offspring 
far  superior  to  the  class  of  hogs  usually  denominated 
"  subsoilers."  with  their  long  and  pointed  snouts,  and 
their  thin,  flabby  sides.  The  principles  of  breeding,  as 
stated  on  pp.  70  and  71,  and  elsewhere  in  the  preceding 
pages,  are  equally  applicable  here,  and  are  abundantly 
suggestive  on  many  other  points.  This  is  the  import- 
ant  point,  the  selection  of  the  proper  breed  and  the 
proper  cross :  for  there  is  scarcely  any  class  of  stock 
which  varies  so  much  in  its  net  returns  as  this ;  and 
there  is  none  which,  if  properly  selected  and  judiciously 
managed,  returns  the  investment  so  quickly. 

Those  who  feed  for  the  early  market,  and  desire  to 
realize  the  largest  profits  with  the  least  outlay  of  time 
and  money,  will  resort  to  the  Suffolk,  the  Berkshire,  or 
the  Essex,  to  obtain  crosses  with  sows  of  the  larger 
breeds,  and  will  breed  up  more  or  less  closely  to  these 
breeds,  according  to  the  special  object  they  have  in 
view.  The  Suffolks  are  nearly  allied  to  the  Chinese, 
and  possess  much  the  same   characteristics.     Though 


EARLY    MATURITY.  —  SIZE.  363 

generally  regarded  as  too  small  for  profit  except  to 
those  who  breed  for  stock,  their  extraordinary  fattening 
qualities  and  their  early  maturity  adapt  them  eminently 
for  crossing  with  the  larger  breeds.  The  form  of  the 
well-built  Suffolk,  when  not  too  closely  inbred,  is  a 
model  of  compactness,  and  lightness  of  bone  and  offal. 
Though  often  too  short  in  the  body,  a  large-boned 
female  will  generally  correct  this  fault,  and  produce  an 
offspring  suited  to  the  wants  of  the  dairy  farmer. 

The  Berkshire  is  also  mixed  in  with  the  Chinese,  and 
owes  no  small  part  of  its  valuable  chaiacteristics  to  that 
race.  The  Berkshires,  as  a  breed,  often  attain  consider- 
able size  and  weight. 

The  improved  Essex  are  the  favorites  of  some,  and 
for  early  maturity  they  are  difficult  to  surpass.  Some 
think  they  require  greater  care  and  better  feeding  than 
the  Berkshire. 

What  is  wanted  is  to  unite,  so  far  as  possible,  the 
early  maturity  and  the  facility  to  take  on  fat  of  the 
Suffolk,  the  Chinese,  or  the  Essex,  with  a  tendency  at 
the  same  time  to  make  flesh  as  well  as  fat ;  or,  in  other 
words,  to  attain  a  good  growth  and  size,  and  to  fatten 
easily  when  the  time  comes  to  put  them  down.  The 
Chinese  or  the  Suffolk  are  but  ill  adapted  for  hams  and 
bacon ;  but,  crossed  upon  the  kind  of  hog  already 
described,  the  produce  will  be  likely  to  be  valuable. 

The  most  judicious  practical  farmers  are  now  fully 
satisfied,  I  think,  that  the  tendency,  for  the  last  ten 
years,  in  the  Eastern  States  more  especially,  has  been 
to  bleed  too  fine  ;  and  that  the  result  of  this  error  has 
been  to  cover  our  swine  with  fat  at  a  very  early  age, 
and  before  they  have  attained  a  respectable  size.  In 
other  words,  the  flesh  and  bone  have  been  too  far 
sacrificed  to  fat.  A  reaction  has  already  taken  place 
in  the  opinions  on  this  point,  and  perhaps  some  cau- 


364  STUDYING    THE    MARKET. 

tion  may  be  necessary,  that  it  does  not  lead  too  far  in  the 
opposite  direction. 

Some  practical  dairymen  think  that  with  a  dairy  of 
twenty  or  thirty  cows  they  can  keep  from  forty  to  fifty 
swine,  by  turning  into  the  orchard  or  the  pasture,  in  early 
spring,  and  as  pigs,  where  they  will  easily  procure  a 
large  part  of  their  food,  till  the  close  of  fall,  when  they 
are  taken  in  and  fed  up  gradually  at  first,  but  afterward 
more  highly,  and  fattened  as  rapidly  and  turned  as 
soon  as  possible. 

Others  say  there  is  no  profit  in  working  hogs,  and 
that"  they  should  be  kept  confined  and  constantly  and 
rapidly  growing  up  to  the  time  of  turning  them  for 
pork,  growing  steadily,  but  not  laying  on  too  much  fat 
till  fed  up  to  it. 

I  am  inclined  to  think  the  farmers  of  the  Eastern 
States  confine  their  swine  too  closely ;  and  that,  while 
still  kept  as  store-pigs,  a  somewhat  greater  range  in  the 
orchard,  or  the  pasture,  would  prove  to  be  good  econ- 
omy, particularly  up  to  the  age  of  eight  or  nine  months. 

The  judicious  dairyman  will  study  the  taste  and 
demands  of  the  market  where  his  pork  is  to  be  sold. 
If  he  supplies  a  city  customer,  he  knows  he  must  raise 
a  fine  and  delicate  quality  of  pork ;  and  to  do  this  he 
must  select  stock  that  will  early  arrive  at  maturity,  and 
that  will  bear  forcing  ahead  and  selling  young.  If  he 
supplies  a  market  where  large  amounts  of  pork  are 
salted  and  packed  for  shipping,  or  for  bacon,  a  large r 
and  coarser  hog,  fed  to  greater  age  and  weight,  will 
turn  to  better  advantage,  though  I  think  a  strain  oi 
finer  blood  will  even  then  be  profitable  to  the  feeder. 
En  either  case,  the  refuse  of  the  dairy  is  of  considerable 
value,  and  should  be  saved  with  scrupulous  care,  and 
judiciously  fed.     "Many  a  little  makes  a  inickle." 


APPENDIX. 


The  following  is  Mr.  Thomas  Horsfall's  statement,  referred  to  on 
page  138,  with  the  omission  of  a  few  passages,  relating  to  matters 
not  immediately  connected  with  the  dairy.     It  is  entitled 

THE   MANAGEMENT   OF   DAIRY   CATTLE. 

On  entering  upon  a  description  of  my  treatment  of 
cows  for  dairy  purposes,  it  seems  pertinent  that  I 
should  give  some  explanation  of  the  motives  and  con- 
siderations which  influence  my  conduct  in  this  branch 
of  my  farm  operations. 

I  have  found  it  stated,  on  authority  deserving  atten- 
tion, that  store  cattle  of  a  fair  size,  and  without  other 
occupation,  maintain  their  weight  and  condition  for  a 
length  of  time,  when  supplied  daily  with  one  hundred 
and  twenty  pounds  of  Swedish  turnips  and  a  small  por- 
tion of  straw.  The  experience  of  the  district  of 
Craven,  in  Yorkshire,  where  meadow  hay  is  the  staple 
food  during  winter,  shows  that  such  cattle  maintain 
their  condition  on  one  and  a  half  stone,  or  twenty-one 
pounds,  of  meadow  hay  each  per  day.  These  respective 
quantities  of  turnips  and  of  hay  correspond  very  closely 
in  their  nutritive  properties ;  they  contain  a  very  simi- 
lar amount  of  albuminous  matter,  starch,  sugar,  etc., 
and  also  of  phosphoric  acid.  Of  oil  —  an  important 
element,  especially  for  the  purpose  of  which  I  am  treat 
ing  —  the  stated  supply  of  meadow  hay  contains  more 
than  that  of  turnips.  If  we  supplv  cows  in  milk,  of 
31* 


366  APPENDIX.  —  horsfall's   system. 

average  size,  with  the  kind  and  quantity  of  food  above 
mentioned,  they  will  lose  perceptibly  in  condition. 
This  is  easily  explained  when  we  find  their  milk  rich  in 
substances  which  serve  for  their  support  when  in  store 
condition,  and  which  are  shown  to  be  diverted  in  the 
secretion  of  milk. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  towns  where  the  dairy  prod- 
uce is  disposed  of  in  new  milk,  and  where  the  aim  of 
dairymen  is  to  produce  the  greatest  quantity,  too  fre- 
quently with  but  little  regard  to  quality,  it  is  their 
common  practice  to  purchase  incalving  cows.  They 
pay  great  attention  to  the  condition  of  the  cow ;  they 
will  tell  you,  by  the  high  comparative  price  they  pay 
for  animals  well  stored  with  flesh  and  fat,  that  condition 
is  as  valuable  for  them  as  it  is  for  the  butcher ;  they 
look  upon  these  stores  as  materials  which  serve  their 
purpose ;  they  supply  food  more  adapted  to  induce 
quantity  than  quality,  and  pay  but  little  regard  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  condition  of  the  animal.  With  such 
treatment,  the  cow  loses  in  condition  during  the  process 
of  milking,  and  when  no  longer  profitable  is  sold  to 
purchasers  in  farming  districts  where  food  is  cheaper, 
to  be  fattened  or  otherwise  replenished  for  the  use  of 
the  dairy  keeper.  We  thus  find  a  disposition  in  the 
cow  to  apply  the  aliment  of  her  food  to  her  milk,  rather 
than  to  lay  on  flesh  or  fat ;  for  not  only  are  the  ele- 
ments of  her  food  diverted  to  this  purpose,  but,  to  all 
appearance,  her  accumulated  stores  of  flesh  and  fat  are 
drawn  upon,  and  converted  into  components  of  milk, 
cheese,  or  butter. 

As  I  am  differently  circumstanced,  —  a  considerable 
portion  of  my  dairy  produce  being  intended  for  butter, 
for  which  poor  milk  is  not  adapted, — and  as  I  fatten  not 
only  my  own  cows,  but  purchase  others  to  fatten  in 
addition,  I  have  endeavored  to  devise  food  for  my 
milch  cows  adapted  to  their  maintenance  and  improve- 
ment, and  with  this  view  I  have  paid  attention  to  the 
composition  of  milk.  From  several  analyses  I  have 
selected  one  by  Haidlen,  which  I  find  in  publications 
of  repute.     Taking  a  full  yield  of  milk,  four  gallons  per 


JUDICIOUS    FEEDING.  367 

day,  which  will  weigh  upwards  of  forty  pounds,  this 
analysis  assigns  to  it  of  dry  material  5.20,  of  which  the 
proportion,  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  my  purpose, 
consists  of 

Pure  caseine, 2.00  pounds 

Butter, 1.25       " 

Sugar, 1.75       " 

Phosphate  oflime, 09       " 

Chloride  of  potassium, 

Other  mineral  ingredients, 11       " 

^20       " 

Tt  appeared  an  object  of  importance,  and  one  which 
called  for  my  particular  attention,  to  afford  an  ample 
supply  of  the  elements  of  food  suited  to  the  main- 
tenance and  likewise  to  the  produce  of  the  animal ;  and 
that,  if  I  omitted  to  effect  this,  the  result  would  be 
imperfect  and  unsatisfactory.  By  the  use  of  ordinary 
farm  produce  only,  I  could  not  hope  to  accomplish  my 
purpose.  Turnips  are  objectionable  on  account  of  their 
flavor  ;  and  I  seek  to  avoid  them  as  food  for  dairy  pur- 
poses. I  use  cabbages,  kohl  rabi,  and  mangold  wurzel, 
yet  only  in  moderate  quantities.  Of  meadow  hay  it 
would  require,  beyond  the  amount  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  cow,  an  addition  of  fully  twenty 
pounds  for  the  supply  of  caseine  in  a  full  yield  of  milk 
(sixteen  quarts) ;  forty  pounds  for  the  supply  of  oil  for 
the  butter,  whilst  nine  pounds  seem  adequate  for  that 
of  the  phosphoric  acid.  You  cannot,  then,  induce  a 
cow  to  consume  the  quantity  of  hay  requisite  for  her 
maintenance,  and  for  a  full  yield  of  milk  of  the  quality 
instanced.  Though  it  is  a  subject  of  controversy 
whether  butter  is  wholly  derived  from  vegetable  oil, 
yet  the  peculiar  adaptation  of  this  oil  to  the  purpose 
will,  I  think,  be  admitted.  I  had,  therefore,  to  seek 
assistance  from  what  are  usually  termed  artificial  feed- 
ing substances,  and  to  select  such  as  are  rich  in  albumen, 
oil,  and  phosphoric  acid ;  and  I  was  bound  also  to  pay 
regard  to  their  comparative  cost,  with  a  view  to  profit, 
which,  when   farming   is   followed  as  a  business,  is  a 


368  APPENDIX.  —  horsfall's    system. 

necessary,  and  in  any  circumstances  an  agreeable 
accompaniment. 

I  think  it  will  be  found  that  substances  peculiarly  rich 
in  nitrogenous  or  other  elements  have  a  higher  value 
for  special  than  for  general  purposes,  and  that  the 
employment  of  materials  characterized  by  peculiar 
properties  for  the  attainment  of  special  objects  has  not 
yet  gained  the  attention  to  which  it  is  entitled. 

I  have  omitted  all  reference  to  the  heat-supplying 
elements  —  starch,  sugar,  etc.  As  the  materials  com- 
monly used  as  food  for  cattle  contain  sufficient  of  these 
to  effect  this  object,  under  exposure  to  some  degree  of 
cold,  I  have  a  right  to  calculate  on  a  less  consumption 
of  them  as  fuel,  and  consequently  a  greater  surplus  for 
deposit  as  sugar,  and  probably  also  as  fat,  in  conse- 
quence of  my  stalls  being  kept  during  winter  at  a  tem- 
perature of  nearly  sixty  degrees. 

The  means  used  to  carry  out  his  objects  are  stated 
on  page  138. 

As  several  of  these  materials  —  rape-cake,  shorts, 
bean-straw,  etc. — are  not  commonly  used  as  food,  I 
may  be  allowed  some  observations  on  their  properties. 
Bean-straw  uncooked  is  dry  and  unpalatable.  By  the 
process  of  steaming,  it  becomes  soft  and  pulpy,  emits 
an  agreeable  odor,  and  imparts  flavor  and  relish  to  the 
mess.  For  my  information  and  guidance  I  obtained  an 
analysis  of  bean-straw  of  my  own  growth,  on  strong 
and  high-conditioned  land  ;  it  was  cut  on  the'  short  side 
of  ripeness,  but  yielding  a  plump  bean.  The  analysis  by 
Professor  Way  shows  a  percentage  of 


Moisture, 14.47 

Albuminous  mater,      .     .     16.38 
Oil  or  fatty  matter,     .     .       2.23 


Woody  fibre,  ....  25  84 
Starch,  gum,  etc.,  .  .  .  31.63 
Mineral  matters,     .     .     .       9.45 


Total, 100.00 

In  albuminous  matter,  which  is  especially  valuable  foi 
milch  cows,  it  has  nearly  double  the  proportion  con 
tained  in  meadow  hay.     Bran  also  undergoes  a  great 


OIL-CAKE. — WEIGHING     COWS.  369 

improvement  in  its  flavor  by  steaming,  and  it  is  prob- 
ably improved  in  its  convertibility  as  food.  It  contains 
about  fourteen  per  cent,  of  albumen,  and  is  peculiarly 
rich  in  phosphoric  acid,  nearly  three  per  cent,  of  its 
whole  substance  being  of  this  material.  The  properties 
of  rape-cake  are  well  known:  the  published  analyses 
give  it  a  large  proportion  (nearly  thirty  per  cent.)  of 
albumen  ;  it  is  rich  in  phosphates,  and  also  in  oil.  This 
is  of  the  unctuous  class  of  vegetable  oils,  and  it  is  to 
this  property  that  I  call  particular  attention.  Chemistry 
will  assign  to  this  material,  which  has  hitherto  been 
comparatively  neglected  for  feeding,  a  first  place  for 
the  purpose  of  which  I  am  treating.  If  objection 
should  occur  on  account  of  its  flavor,  I  have  no  diffi- 
culty in  stating  that  by  the  preparation  I  have  described 
I  have  quite  overcome  this.  I  can  easily  persuade  my 
cattle  (of  which  sixty  to  eighty  pass  through  my  stalls 
in  a  year),  without  exception,  to  eat  the  requisite 
quantity.  Nor  is  the  flavor  of  the  cake  in  the  least 
perceptible  in  the  milk  or  butter. 

During  May,  my  cows  are  turned  out  on  a  rich  pas- 
ture near  the  homestead  ;  towards  evening  they  are 
again  housed  for  the  night,  when  they  are  supplied 
with  a  mess  of  the  steamed  mixture  and  a  little  hay 
each  morning  and  evening.  During  June,  when  the 
grasses  are  better  grown,  mown  grass  is  given  to  them 
instead  of  hay,  and  thej'  are  also  allowed  two  feeds  of 
steamed  mixture.  This  treatment  is  continued  till 
October,  when  they  are  again  wholly  housed. 

The  results  which  I  now  proceed  to  relate  are  de- 
rived from  observations  made  with  the  view  of  enabling 
me  to  understand  and  regulate  my  own  proceedings. 

Gain  or  Loss  of  Condition  ascertained  by  weigh- 
ing Cattle  periodically.  —  For  some  years  back  I 
have  regularly  weighed  my  feeding  stock,  a  practice 
from  which  I  am  enabled  to  ascertain  their  doings  with 
greater  accuracy  than  I  could  previously.  In  January, 
1854,  I  commenced  weighing  my  milch  cows.  It  has 
been  shown,  by  what  1  have  premised,  that  no  accurate 
estimate  ran  be  formed  of  the  effect  of  the  food  on  the 

24 


370 


APPENDIX. —  HORSFALL'S    SYSTEM. 


production  of  milk,  without  ascertaining  its  effect  on 
the  condition  of  the  cows.  I  have  continued  the  prac- 
tice once  a  month,  almost  without  omission,  up  to  this 
date.  The  weighings  take  place  early  in  the  morning, 
and  before  the  cows  are  supplied  with  food.  The 
weights  are  registered,  and  the  length  of  time  (fifteen 
months)  during  which  I  have  observed  this  practice 
enables  me  to  speak  with  confidence  of  the  results. 

The  cows  in  full  milk,  yielding  twelve  to  sixteen 
quarts  each  per  day,  vary  but  little;  some  losing, 
others  gaining,  slightly ;  the  balance  in  the  month's 
weighing  of  this  class  being  rather  to  gain.  It  is  com- 
mon for  a  cow  to  continue  a  yield  from  six  to  eight 
months  before  she  gives  below  twelve  quarts  per  day, 
at  which  time  she  has  usually,  if  not  invariably,  gained 
weight. 

The  cows  giving  less  than  twelve  quarts  and  down 
to  five  quarts  per  day  are  found,  when  free  from  ail- 
ment, to  gain,  without  exception.  This  gain,  with  an 
average  yield  of  nearly  eight  quarts  per  day,  is  at  the 
rate  of  seven  pounds  to  eight  pounds  per  week  each. 

My  cows  in  calf  I  weigh  only  in  the  incipient  stages ; 
but  they  gain  perceptibly  in  condition,  and  consequently 
in  value.  They  are  milked  till  within  four  weeks  to 
five  weeks  previous  to  calving.  I  give  the  weights  of 
three  of  these,  and  also  of  one  heifer,  which  calved  in 
March,  1855: 


No.  | 
I 

:2 


1855. ' 


jGaiu 


Bought  and  weighed, 


Heifer,  which  calved  also 
iu  March,  1855,  weighed 


July. 
u 

cwt. 

10 

8 
8 

qr. 
1 

2 
2 

lbs. 

2d 

10 

o 

April. 
n 

it 

cwt. 
11 

10 
10 

qr. 

3 

2 
0 

Ihs. 

0 

0 
0 

a 

7 

0 

0 

a 

9 

3 

0 

148 
214 
184 

300 


These  observations  extend  over  lengthened  periods, 
on  the  same  animals,  of  from  thirty  to  upwards  of  fifty 
weeks.  A  cow,  free  from  calf,  and  intended  for  fatten 
ing,  continues  to  give  milk  from  ten  months  to  a  yeai 
after  calving,  and   is  then  in  a  forward  state  of  fatness 


EXTRA    FOOD.  —  PERMANENT    IMPROVEMENT.    371 

requiring  but  a  few  weeks  to  finish  her  for  sale  to  the 
butchers. 

It  will  thus  appear  that  my  endeavors  to  provide 
food  adapted  to  the  maintenance  and  improvement  of 
my  milch  cows  have  been  attended  with  success. 

On  examining  the  composition  of  the  ordinary  food 
which  I  have  described,  straw,  roots,  and  hay,  it  appears 
to  contain  the  nutritive  properties  which  are  found 
adequate  to  the  maintenance  of  the  animal,  whereas  the 
yield  of  milk  has  to  be  provided  for  by  a  supply  of  extra 
food  ;  the  rape-cake,  bran,  and  bean-meal,  which  I  give, 
will  supply  the  albumen  for  the  caseine  ;  it  is  somewhat 
deficient  in  oil  for  the  butter,  whilst  it  will  supply  in 
excess  the  phosphate  of  lime  for  a  full  yield  of  milk.  If 
I  take  the  class  of  cows  giving  less  than  twelve  quarts 
per  day,  and  take  also  into  account  a  gain  of  flesh  of 
seven  to  nine  pounds  per  week,  though  I  reduce  the 
quantity  of  extra  food  by  giving  less  of  the  bean-meal, 
yet  the  supply  will  be  more  in  proportion  than  with  a  full 
yield  ;  the  surplus  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid,  or 
phosphate  of  lime,  will  go  to  enrich  the  manure. 

I  cannot  here  omit  to  remark  on  the  satisfaction  I 
derive  from  the  effects  of  this  treatment  on  the  fertility 
of  the  land  in  my  occupation.  My  rich  pastures  are 
not  tending  to  impoverishment,  but  to  increased  fer- 
tility ;  their  improvement  in  condition  is  apparent.  A 
cow  in  full  milk,  giving  sixteen  quarts  per  day,  of  the 
quality  analyzed  by  Haidlen,  requires,  beyond  the  food 
necessary  for  her  maintenance,  six  to  eight  pounds  per 
day  of  substances  containing  thirty  or  twenty-five  per 
cent,  of  protein.  A  cow  giving  on  the  average  eight 
quarts  per  day,  with  which  she  gains  seven  to  nine 
pounds  per  week,  requires  four  to  five  pounds  per  day 
of  substances  rich  in  protein,  beyond  the  food  which  is 
necessary  for  her  maintenance.  Experience  of  fattening 
gives  two  pounds  per  day,  or  fourteen  pounds  per  week, 
as  what  can  be  attained  on  an  average,  and  for  a  length 
uf  time.  If  we  considered  half  a  pound  per  day  as  fat, 
which  is  not  more  I  in  probable,  therp  will  be  one  and 
a  half  pounds  for  fl ••  I),  which,  reckoned  as  dry  material. 


372    APPENDIX.  —  horsfall's  system. 

will  be  about  one  third  of  a  pound,  which  is  assimilated 
in  increase  of  fibrin,  and  represents  only  one  and  one 
third  to  two  pounds  of  substances  rich  in  protein, 
beyond  what  is  required  for  her  maintenance. 

If  we  examine  the  effects  on  the  fertility  of  the  land, 
my  milch  cows,  when  on  rich  pasture,  and  averaging  a 
yield  of  nine  quarts  per  day,  and  reckoning  one  cow  to 
each  acre,  will  carry  off  in  twenty  weeks  twenty-five 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  equal  to  thirty  of  ammonia.  The 
same  quantity  of  milk  will  carry  off  seven  pounds  of 
phosphate  of  lime  in  twenty  weeks  from  each  acre. 

A  fattening  animal,  gaining  flesh  at  the  rate  I  have 
described,  will  carry  off  about  one  third  of  the  nitrogen 
(equal  to  about  ten  pounds  of  ammonia)  abstracted  by 
the  milch  cow,  whilst  if  full  grown  it  will  restore  the 
whole  of  the  phosphate. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  experience  shows  that 
rich  pastures,  used  for  fattening,  fully  maintain  their  fer- 
tility through  a  long  series  of  years,  whilst  those  used 
for  dairy  cows  require  periodical  dressings  to  preserve 
their  fertility. 

If  these  computations  be  at  all  accurate,  they  tend  to 
show  that  too  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  sup- 
ply of  substances  rich  in  nitrogenous  compounds  in  the 
food  of  our  milch  cows,  whilst  we  have  laid  too  much 
stress  on  this  property  in  food  for  fattening  cattle. 
They  tend  also  to  the  inference  that  in  the  effects  on 
the  fertility  of  our  pastures  used  for  dairy  purposes  we 
derive  advantage  not  only  from  the  phosphate  of  lime, 
but  also  from  the  gelatine  of  bones  used  as  manure. 

On  comparing  the  results  from  my  milch  cows  fed  in 
summer  on  rich  pasture,  and  treated  at  the  same  time 
with  the  extra  food  I  have  described,  with  the  results 
when  on  winter  food,  and  whilst  wholly  housed,  taking 
into  account  both  the  yield  of  milk  and  the  gain  of 
weight,  I  find  those  from  stall-feeding  full  equal  to  those 
from  depasture.  The  cows  which  I  buy  as  strippers,  for 
fattening,  giving  little  milk,  from  neighboring  farmers 
who  use  ordinary  food,  such  as  turnips  with  straw  or 
hay,  when  they  come  under  my  treatment  increase  their 


RICHNESS    OF    MILK  373 

yield  of  milk,  until  after  a  week  or  two  they  give  two 
quarts  per  day  more  than  when  they  came,  and  that  too 
of  a  much  richer  quality. 

Richness  of  Milk  and  Cream. — I  sometimes  observe, 
in  the  weekly  publications  which  come  under  my  notice, 
accounts  of  cows  giving  large  quantities  of  butter. 
These  are  usually,  however,  extraordinary  instances,  and 
not  accompanied  with  other  statistical  information  re- 
quisite to  their  being  taken  as  a  guide  ;  and  it  seldom 
happens  that  any  allusion  is  made  to  the  effects  of  the 
food  on  the  condition  of  the  animals,  without  which  no 
accurate  estimate  can  be  arrived  at.  On  looking  over 
several  treatises  to  which  I  have  access,  I  find  the  fol- 
lowing statistics  on  dairy  produce  :  Mr.  Morton,  in 
his  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture,"  p.  621,  gives  the 
results  of  the  practice  of  a  Mr.  Young,  an  extensive 
dairy-keeper  in  Scotland.  The  yield  of  milk  per  cow  is 
stated  at  six  hundred  and  eighty  gallons  per  year ;  he 
obtains  from  sixteen  quarts  of  milk  twenty  ounces  of 
butter,  or  for  the  year  two  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
pounds  per  cow;  from  one  gallon  of  cream  three  pounds 
of  butter,  or  twelve  ounces  per  quart  (wine  measure). 
Mr.  Young  is  described  as  a  high  feeder  ;  linseed  is  his 
chief  auxiliary  food  for  milch  cows.  Professor  John- 
ston ("Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry")  gives  the 
proportion  of  butter  from  milk  at  one  and  a  half  ounces 
per  quart,  or  from  sixteen  quarts  twenty-four  ounces, 
being  the  produce  of  four  cows  of  different  breeds,  — 
Alderney,  Devon,  and  Ayrshire, — on  pasture,  and  in  the 
height  of  the  summer  season.  On  other  four  cows  of  the 
Ayrshire  breed  he  gives  the  proportion  of  butter  from 
sixteen  quarts  as  sixteen  ounces,  being  one  ounce  per 
quart.  These  cows  were  likewise  on  pasture.  The 
same  author  states  the  yield  of  butter  as  one  fou:  ch  of 
the  weight  of  cream,  or  about  ten  ounces  per  quart. 
Mr.  Rowlandson  ("  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society,"  vol.  xiii.,  p.  38)  gives  the  produce  of  20,110 
quarts  of  milk  churned  by  hand  as  1109  pounds  of  but- 
ter, being  at  the  rate  of  fully  14  ounces  per  16  quarts 
of  milk ;  and  from  23,156  quarts  of  milk  1525  pounds 
32 


374         APPENDIX. — horsfall's    system. 

of  butter,  being  from  16  quarts  nearly  16|  ounces  ot 
butter.  The  same  author  states  that  the  yield  of  but- 
ter derived  from  five  churnings,  of  15  quarts  of  cream 
each,  is  somewhat  less  than  8  ounces  per  quart  of  cream. 
Dr.  Muspratt,  in  his  work  on  the  "  Chemistry  of  Arts 
and  Manufactures,"  which  is  in  the  course  of  publication, 
gives  the  yield  of  butter  from  a  cow  per  year  in  Hol- 
stein  and  Lunenburg  at  100  pounds,  in  England  at  160 
pounds  to  180  pounds.  The  average  of  butter  from  a 
cow  in  England  is  stated  to  be  eight  or  nine  ounces  per 
day,  which,  on  a  yield  of  eight  to  nine  quarts,  is  one 
ounce  per  quart,  or  for  sixteen  quarts  sixteen  ounces. 
The  quantity  of  butter  derived  from  cream  is  stated  as 
one  fourth,  which  is  equal  to  about  nine  ounces  pei 
quart.  The  richest  cream  of  which  I  find  any  record 
is  that  brought  to  the  Royal  Society's  meeting  during 
the  month  of  July,  for  the  churns  which  compete  for 
the  prize.  On  referring  to  the  proceedings  of  several 
meetings,  I  find  that  fourteen  ounces  per  quart  of  cream 
is  accounted  a  good  yield. 

I  have  frequently  tested  the  yield  of  butter  from  a 
given  quantity  of  my  milk.  My  dairy  produce  is  partly 
disposed  of  in  new  milk,  partly  in  butter  and  old  milk, 
so  that  it  became  a  matter  of  business  to  ascertain  by 
which  mode  it  gave  the  best  return.  I  may  here  remark 
that  my  dairy  practice  has  been  throughout  on  high 
feeding,  though  it  has  undergone  several  modifications. 
The  mode  of  ascertaining  the  average  yield  of  butter 
from  milk  has  been  to  measure  the  milk  on  the  churning- 
day,  after  the  cream  has  been  skimmed  off,  then  to 
measure  the  cream,  and  having,  by  adding  togethe  r  the 
two  measurements,  ascertained  the  whole  quantity  of 
milk  (including  the  cream),  to  compare  it  with  that  of 
the  butter  obtained.  This  I  consider  a  more  accurate 
method  than  measuring  the  new  milk,  as  there  is  a  con- 
siderable escape  of  gas,  and  consequent  subsidence, 
whilst  it  is  cooling.  The  results  have  varied  from 
twenty-four  to  twenty-seven  and  a  quarter  ounces  from 
sixteen  quarts  of  milk.  I  therefore  assume  in  my  cal- 
culation sixteen  quarts  of  milk  as  yielding  a  roll  (twen- 
ty-five ounces)  of  butter. 


PROPORTION  OF  CREAM  AND  BUTTER.    375 

As  I  have  at  times  a  considerable  number  of  cows 
bought  as  strippers,  and  fattened  as  they  are  milked, 
which  remain  sometimes  in  my  stalls  eight  or  nine 
months,  and  yield  towards  the  close  but  five  quarts  per 
day,  T  am  not  enabled  to  state  with  accuracy  and  from  as- 
certained data  the  average  yield  per  year  of  my  cows  kept 
for  dairy  purposes  solely.  However,  from  what  occurs 
at  grass-time,  when  the  yield  is  not  increased,  and  also 
from  the  effects  of  my  treatment  on  cows  which  I  buy, 
giving  a  small  quantity,  I  am  fully  persuaded  that  my 
treatment  induces  a  good  yield  of  milk. 

As  the  yield  of  butter  from  a  given  quantity  of  cream 
is  not  of  such  particular  consequence,  I  have  not  given 
equal  attention  to  ascertain  their  relative  proportions. 
I  have  a  recollection  of  having  tested  this  on  a  former 
occasion,  when  I  found  fourteen  to  sixteen  ounces  per 
quart,  but  cannot  call  to  mind  under  what  treatment  this 
took  place. 

On  questioning  my  dairy-woman,  in  December,  1854, 
as  to  the  proportion  of  cream  and  butter,  she  reported 
nearly  one  roll  of  twenty-five  ounces  of  butter  to  one 
quart  of  cream.  I  looked  upon  this  as  a  mistake.  On 
its  accuracy  being  persisted  in,  the  next  churning  was 
carefully  observed,  with  a  like  proportion.     My  dairy 

cows  averaged  then  a  low  range  of  milk  as  to  quantity 

about  eight  quarts  each  per  day.  Six  of  them,  in  a  for- 
ward state  of  fatness,  were  intended  to  be  dried  for 
finishing  off  in  January  ;  but,  owing  to  the  scarcity  and 
consequent  dearness  of  calving  cows,  I  kept  them  on  in 
milk  till  I  could  purchase  cows  to  replace  them,  and  it 
was  not  till  February  that  I  had  an  opportunity  of 
doing  so.  I  then  bought  four  cows  within  a  few  days 
of  calving  ;  they  were  but  in  inferior  condition,  and 
yielded  largely  of  milk.  Towards  the  close  of  February 
and  March,  four  of  my  own  dairy  cows,  in  full  condi- 
tion, likewise  calved.  During  March,  three  of  the  six 
which  had  continued  from  December,  and  were  milked 
nearly  up  to  the  day  of  sale,  were  selected  by  the 
butcher  as  fit  for  his  purpose.  Each  churning  through- 
out was  carefully  observed,  with  a  similar  result,  vary- 


376  APPENDIX.  —  horsfall's    system. 

ing  but  little  from  twenty-five  ounces  of  butter  per 
quart  of  cream  ;  on  Monday,  April  30,  sixteen  quarts 
of  cream  having  yielded  sixteen  rolls  (of  twenty -five 
ounces  each)  of  butter.  Though  I  use  artificial  means 
of  raising  the  temperature  of  my  dairy,  by  the  applica- 
tion of  hot  water  daring  cold  weather,  yet,  my  service- 
pipes  being  frozen  in  February,  I  was  unable  to  keep 
up  the  temperature,  and  it  fell  to  forty-five  degrees. 
Still  my  cream,  though  slightly  affected,  was  peculiarly 
rich,  yielding  twenty-two  ounces  of  butter  per  quart. 
Throughout  April  the  produce  of  milk  from  my  fifteen 
dairy  cows  averaged  full  one  hundred  and  sixty  quarts 
per  day. 

My  cows  are  bought  in  the  neighboring  markets  with 
a  view  to  their  usefulness  and  profitableness.  The 
breeds  of  this  district  have  a  considerable  admixture  of 
the  short-horn,  which  is  not  noted  for  the  richness  of 
its  milk.  It  will  be  remarked  that  during  the  time 
these  observations  have  been  continued  on  the  propor- 
tion of  butter  from  cream,  more  than  half  of  my  cows 
have  been  changed. 

Having  satisfied  myself  that  the  peculiar  richness  of 
my  cream  was  due  mainly  to  the  treatment  of  my  cows 
which  I  have  sought  to  describe,  it  occurred  to  me  that 
I  ought  not  to  keep  it  to  myself,  inasmuch  as  these 
results  of  my  dairy  practice  not  only  afforded  matter 
of  interest  to  the  farmer,  but  were  fit  subjects  for 
the  investigation  of  the  physiologist  and  the  chemist. 
Though  my  pretensions  to  acquirements  in  their 
instructions  are  but  slender,  they  are  such  as  enable 
me  to  acknowledge  benefit  in  seeking  to  regulate  my 
proceedings  by  their  rules. 

In  taking  off  the  cream  I  use  an  ordinary  shallow 
skimmer  of  tin  perforated  with  holes,  through  which 
any  milk  gathered  in  skimming  escapes.  It  requires 
care  to  clear  the  cream ;  and  even  with  this  some 
streakiness  is  observable  on  the  surface  of  the  skimmed 
milk.  The  milk-bowls  are  of  glazed  brown  earthen 
ware,  common  in  this  district.  They  stand  on  a  base 
of  six   to  eight  inches,  and  expand   at  the  surface  to 


BUTTER    AND     BUTTER-MILK.  377 

nearly  twice  that  width.  Four  to  five  quarts  are  con- 
tained in  each  bowl,  the  depth  being  four  to  five  inches 
at  the  centre.  The  churn  I  use  is  a  small  wooden  one, 
worked  by  hand,  on  what  I  believe  to  be  the  American 
principle.  I  have  forwarded  to  Professor  Way  a  small 
sample  of  butter  for  analysis ;  fifteen  quarts  of  cream 
were  taken  out  of  the  cream-jar,  and  churned  at  three 
times  in  equal  portions  : 

The  first  five  quarts  of  cream  gave  .     .  127  ounces  of  butter. 
Second  five         "       "      "        "     .     .  125       "      "       " 
Third  five  "       "      "        "     .     .  120£     "      "       " 

Equal  to  24|  ounces  per  quart. 

At  a  subsequent  churning  of  fourteen  quarts  of 
cream, 

The  first  seven  gave  7  rolls,  or    .     .     .  175  ounces  of  butter. 
Second  seven  gave  7  rolls  2  oz.,  or  .     .  177       "      "      " 

352 
Equal  to  254-  ounces  per  quart. 

On  testing  the  comparative  yield  of  butter  and  of 
butter-milk,  I  find  seventy  per  cent,  of  butter  to  thirty 
per  cent,  of  butter-milk,  thus  reversing  the  proportions 
given  in  the  publications  to  which  I  have  referred.  An 
analysis  of  my  butter  by  Professor  Way  gives  : 

Pure  fat  or  oil, 82.70 

Caseine  or  curd, 2.45 

Water,  with  a  little  salt, 14.85 

Total, 100.00 

The  only  analyses  of  this  material  which  I  find  in  the 
publications  in  my  hand  are  two  by  Professor  Way, 
"Journal,"  vol.  xi.,  p.  735,  "  On  butter  by  the  common 
and  by  the  Devonshire  method ;  "  the  result  in  one 
hundred  parts  being: 

Raw.  Scalded. 

Pure  butter, 79.72  79.12 

Caseine,  &c, 3.38  3.37 

Water, 1G.90  17.51 

Total 100.00  TooToO 

32* 


378  APPENDIX.  —  HORSFALL'S    SYSTEM. 

The  foregoing  observation  of  dairy  results  was  con- 
tinued up  to  grass  time  in  1855.  In  April  and  May  the 
use  of  artificial  means  was  discontinued,  without  dimi- 
nution in  the  yield  of  butter  or  richness  of  cream,  the 
natural  temperature  being  sufficient  to  maintain  that  of 
my  dairy  at  54°  to  56°. 

I  now  proceed  to  describe  the  appearances  since  that 
time.  In  the  summer  season,  whilst  my  cows  were 
grazing  in  the  open  pastures  during  the  day  and  housed 
during  the  night,  being  supplied  with  a  limited  quantity 
of  the  steamed  food  each  morning  and  evening,  a 
marked  change  occurred  in  the  quality  of  the  milk  and 
cream ;  the  quantity  of  the  latter  somewhat  increased, 
but,  instead  of  twenty-five  ounces  of  butter  per  quart 
of  cream,  my  summer  cream  yielded  only  sixteen  ounces 
per  quart. 

I  would  not  be  understood  to  attribute  this  variation 
in  quality  to  the  change  of  food  only.  It  is  commonly 
observed  by  dairy-keepers  that  milk,  during  the  warm 
months  of  summer,  is  less  rich  in  butter,  owing  probably 
to  the  greater  restlessness  of  the  cows,  from  being  teased 
by  flies,  etc.  I  am  by  no  means  sure  that,  if  turning 
out  during  the  warm  months  be  at  all  advisable,  it 
would  not  be  preferable  that  this  should  take  place 
during  the  night  instead  of  during  the  day  time. 
Towards  the  close  of  September,  when  the  temperature 
had  become  much  cooler,  and  the  cows  were  supplied 
with  a  much  larger  quantity  of  the  steamed  food,  results 
appeared  very  similar  to  those  which  I  had  observed 
and  described  from  December  to  May,  1855.  During 
the  month  of  November  the  quality  was  tested  with  the 
following  result : 

From  two  hundred  and  fifty-two  quarts  of  old  milk 
were  taken  twenty-one  quarts  of  cream,  of  which  twenty 
were  churned,  and  produced  four  hundred  and  sixty- 
eight  ounces  of  butter,  which  shows  : 

27.50  ounces  of  butter  from  16  quarts  of  new  milk. 
23.40       "      "       "         "     each  quart  of  cream. 

During  May,  1856,  my  cows  being  on  open  pasture 


ELEMENTS     OF    NUTRITION.  379 

during  the  day  were  supplied  with  two  full  feeds  of  the 
steamed  mixture,  together  with  a  supply  of  green  rape- 
plant  each  morning  and  evening. 

The  result  was  that  from  three  hundred  and  twenty- 
four  quarts  of  old  milk  twenty-three  quarts  of  cream 
were  skimmed,  of  which  twenty-two  were  churned,  and 
produced  five  hundred  and  fifteen  ounces  of  butter, 
which  shows  : 

24      ounces  of  butter  from  16  quarts  of  new  milk. 
22.41     "        "      "  "     each  quart  of  cream. 

There  is,  doubtless,  some  standard  of  food  adapted  to 
the  constitution  and  purposes  of  animals,  combining  with 
bulk  a  due  proportion  of  elements  of  respiration,  such 
as  sugar,  starch,  &c,  together  with  those  of  nutrition, 
namely,  nitrogenous  compounds,  phosphates,  and  other 
minerals;  nor  can  we  omit  oil  or  fat-forming  substances  ; 
for,  however  we  may  be  disposed  to  leave  to  philosophy 
the  discussion  as  to  whether  sugar,  starch,  <fcc,  are  con- 
vertible into  fat,  yet  I  think  I  shall  not  offend  the 
teacher  of  agricultural  chemistry  by  stating  that  the 
more  closely  the  elements  of  food  resemble  those  in  the 
animal  and  its  product,  the  more  efficacious  will  such 
food  be  for  the  particular  purpose  for  which  it  is  used. 

Sugar,  starch,  &c,  vary  very  considerably  in  form  and 
proportion  from  vegetable  oils,  which  closely  resemble 
animal  fats. 

When  we  consider  that  plants  have  a  two-fold  function 
to  perform, —  namely,  to  serve  as  food  for  animals,  and 
also  for  the  reproduction  of  the  like  plants,  —  and  that, 
after  having  undergone  the  process  of  digestion,  they 
retain  only  one  half  or  one  third  of  their  value  as  ma- 
nure, the  importance  of  affording  a  due  but  not  excess- 
ive supply  of  each  element  of  food  essential  to  the 
wants  and  purposes  of  the  animal  will  be  evident.  If 
we  fall  short,  the  result  will  be  imperfect;  if  we  supply 
in  excess,  it  will  entail  waste  and  loss. 

Linseed  and  rape-cake  resemble  each  other  very  closely 
in  chemical  composition  ;  the  latter  is  chiefly  used  for 
manure,  and  its  price  ranges  usually  about  half  that  of 


380  APPENDIX.  —  horsfall's    system. 

linseed-cake.  In  substances  poorer  in  nitrogen,  and  with 
more  of  starch,  gum,  oil,  &c,  the  disparity  in  value  as 
food  and  as  manure  will  be  proportionately  greater. 

During  the  present  season,  Mr.  Mendelsohn,  of  Ber- 
lin, and  Mr.  Gausange,  who  is  tenant  of  a  large  royal 
domain  near  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  on  which  he  keeps 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  dairy  cows,  have  been  my  vis- 
itors. These  gentlemen  have  collected  statistics  in  dairy 
countries  through  which  they  have  travelled.  I  learned 
from  them  that  in  Mecklenburg,  Prussia,  Holland,  &c. 
fourteen  quarts  of  milk  yield,  on  the  average,  one  pound 
of  butter  ;  in  rare  instances  twelve  quarts  are  found  to 
yield  one  pound.  Both  attach  great  importance  to  the 
regulation  of  the  temperature.  Mr.  Mendelsohn  tells 
me  that  the  milk  from  cows  fed  on  draff  (distillers' 
refuse)  requires  a  higher  temperatnre  to  induce  its  yield 
of  butter  than  that  from  cows  supplied  with  other 
food. 

On  inquiry  in  my  own  neighborhood,  I  find  it  is  com- 
puted that  each  quart  at  a  milking  represents  one  pound 
of  butter  per  week.  Thus,  a  cow  which  gives  four 
quarts  at  each  milking  will  yield  in  butter  four  pounds 
per  week,  or  from  fifty-six  quarts  sixty-four  ounces  of 
butter,  or  from  fourteen  quarts  of  milk  one  pound  of 
butter.  Taking  the  winter  produce  alone,  it  is  lower 
than  this  ;  the  cream  from  my  neighbors'  cows,  who 
use  common  food,  hay,  straw,  and  oats,  somewhat  resem- 
bles milk  in  consistence,  and  requires  three  to  four 
hours,  sometimes  more,  in  churning.  On  one  occasion, 
a  neighboring  dairy-woman  sent  to  borrow  my  churn, 
being  unable  to  make  butter  with  her  own ;  I  did  not 
inquire  the  result.  If  she  had  sent  her  cow,  I  could  in 
the  course  of  a  week  have  insured  her  cream  which 
would  make  butter  in  half  an  hour.  These  dairy  people 
usually  churn  during  winter  in  their  kitchen,  or  other 
room  with  a  fire.  Each  of  them  states  that  from  bean  or 
oat  meal  used  during  winter  as  an  auxiliary  food  they 
derive  a  greater  quantity  of  butter,  whilst  those  who 
have  tried  linseed-oil  have  perceived  no  benefit  from  it. 

My  own   cream   during  the  winter   season   is  of  the 


SUMMER  BUTTER  IN  WINTER.         381 

consistence  of  paste,  or  thick  treacle.  When  the  jar  is 
full,  a  rod  of  two  feet  long  will,  when  dipped  into  the 
cream  to  half  its  length,  stand  erect.  If  I  take  out  a 
teacupful  in  the  evening,  and  let  it  stand  till  next 
morning,  a  penny-piece  laid  on  its  surface  will  not  sink  ; 
on  taking  it  off,  1  find  the  under  side  partially  spotted 
with  cream.  The  churnings  are  performed  in  a  room 
without  fire,  at  a  temperature  in  winter  of  forty-three 
to  forty -five  degrees,  and  occupy  one  half  to  three 
quarters  of  an  hour. 

Several  who  have  adopted  my  system  have  reported 
similar  effects  —  an  increase  in  the  quantity  with  a  com- 
plete change  as  to  richness  of  quality.  I  select  from 
these  Mr.  John  Simpson,  a  tenant  farmer  residing  at 
Ripley,  in  Yorkshire,  who,  at  my  request,  stated  to  the 
committee  of  the  Wharfdale  Agricultural  Society  that 
he  and  a  neighbor  of  his,  being  inconvenienced  from  a 
deficient  yield  of  milk,  had  agreed  to  try  my  mode  of 
feeding,  and  provided  themselves  with  a  steaming  appa- 
ratus. This  change  of  treatment  took  place  in  February, 
1855.     I  quote  his  words  : 

"  In  about  five  days  I  noticed  a  great  change  in  my 
milk;  the  cows  yielded  two  quarts  each,  per  day,  more; 
but  what  surprised  me  most  was  the  change  in  the  qual- 
ity. Instead  of  poor  winter  cream  and  butter,  they  as- 
sumed the  appearance  and  character  of  rich  summer 
produce.  It  only  required  twenty  minutes  for  churning, 
instead  of  two  to  three  hours ;  there  was  also  a  consid- 
erable increase  in  the  quantity  of  butter,  of  which,  how- 
ever, I  did  not  take  any  particular  notice.  My  neigh- 
bor's cow  gave  three  quarts  per  day  in  addition,  and  her 
milk  was  so  changed  in  appearance  that  the  consumers 
to  whom  he  sold  it  became  quite  anxious  to  know  the 
cause." 

My  dairy  is  but  six  feet  wide  by  fifteen  long  and 
twelve  high.  At  one  end  (to  the  north)  is  a  trellis  win- 
dow ;  at  the  other,  an  inner  door,  which  opens  into  the 
kitchen.  There  is  another  door  near  to  this,  which  opens 
into  the  churning-room,  having  also  a  northern  aspect  ; 
both  doors  are  near  the  south  end  of  the  dairy.    Along 


382  APPENDIX.  —  horsfall's    system. 

each  side,  and  the  north  end,  two  shelves  of  wood  are 
fixed  to  the  wall,  the  one  fifteen  inches  above  the  other; 
two  feet  higher  is  another  shelf  somewhat  narrower, 
hut  of  like  length,  which  is  covered  with  charcoal, 
whose  properties  as  a  deodorizer  are  sufficiently  estab- 
lished. The  lower  shelves  being  two  feet  three  inches 
wide,  the  interval  or  passage  between  is  only  one  foot 
six  inches.  On  each  tier  of  shelves  is  a  shallow  wooden 
cistern,  lined  with  thin  sheet-lead,  having  a  rim  at  the 
edges  three  inches  high.  These  cisterns  incline  down- 
wards slightly  towards  the  window,  and  contain  water 
to  the  depth  of  three  inches.  At  the  end  nearest  the 
kitchen  each  tier  of  cisterns  is  supplied  with  two  taps, 
one  for  cold  water  in  summer,  the  other  with  hot  for 
winter  use.  At  the  end  next  the  north  window  is  a 
plug  or  hollow  tube,  with  holes  perforated  at  such  an 
elevation  as  to  take  the  watei  before  it  flows  over  the 
cistern. 

During  the  summer  the  door  towards  the  kitchen  is 
closed,  and  an  additional  door  is  fixed  against  it,  with  an 
interval  between  well  packed  with  straw  ;  a  curtain  of 
stout  calico  hangs  before  the  trellis  window,  which  is 
dipped  in  salt  water,  and  kept  wet  during  the  whole 
day  by  cold  water  spirted  over  it  from  a  gutta-per- 
cha tube.  On  the  milk  being  brought  in,  it  is  emp- 
tied into  bowls.  Some  time  after  these  bowls  (of 
which  a  description  is  given  in  a  former  part  of  this) 
have  been  placed  on  the  cistern,  the  cold-water  taps 
are  turned  till  the  water  rises  through  the  perforated 
tube,  and  flows  through  a  waste  pipe  into  the  sewer. 
The  taps  are  then  closed,  so  as  to  allow  a  slight  trick- 
ling of  water,  which  continues  through  the  day.  By 
these  means  I  reduce  the  temperature,  as  compared 
with  that  outside  the  window,  by  twenty  degrees.  I  am 
thus  enabled  to  allow  the  milk  to  stand  till  the  cream 
has  risen,  and  keep  the  skimmed  milk  sweet,  for  which 
I  obtain  one  penny  per  quart. 

Having  heard  ccmplaints  during  very  hot  weather 
of  skimmed  milk,  which  had  left  my  dairy  perfectly 
sweet,   being  affected   so  as  to   curdle  in  cooking  on 


LOWERING    INTO    A    WELL.  383 

being  carried  into  the  village,  I  caused  covers  of  thick 
calico  (the  best  of  our  fabrics  for  retaining  moisture)  to 
be  made  ;  these  are  dipped  in  salt  water,  and  then 
drawn  over  the  whole  of  the  tin  milk-cans.  The  con- 
trivance is  quite  successful,  and  is  in  great  favor  with 
the  consumers.  I  have  not  heard  a  single  complaint 
since  I  adopted  it. 

Finding  my  butter  rather  soft  in  hot  weather,  I  un 
covered  a  draw-well  which  I  had  not  used  since  I  intro- 
duced water-works  for  the  supply  of  the  village  and  my 
own  premises.  On  lowering  a  thermometer  down  the 
well  to  a  depth  of  twenty-eight  feat,  I  found  it  indicated 
a  temperature  of  forty-three  degrees  —  that  on  the  sur- 
face being  seventy  degrees.  I  first  let  down  the  butter, 
which  was  somewhat  improved,  but  afterwards  the 
cream.  For  this  purpose  I  procured  a  movable  windlass 
with  a  rope  of  the  required  length;  the  cream-jar  is 
placed  in  a  basket  two  feet  four  inches  deep,  suspended 
on  the  rope,  and  let  down  the  evening  previous  to  churn- 
ing. It  is  drawn  up  early  next  morning,  and  imme- 
diately churned.  By  this  means  the  churning  occupies 
about  the  same  time  as  in  winter,  and  the  butter  is  of 
like  consistence. 

The  advantage  I  derive  from  this  is  such  that,  rather 
than  be  without  it,  I  should  prefer  sinking  a  well  for 
the  purpose  of  reaching  a  like  temperature. 

When  winter  approaches,  the  open  trellis  window  to 
the  north  is  closed,  an  additional  shutter  being  fixed 
outside,  and  the  interval  between  this  and  an  inner 
shutter  closely  packed  with  straw,  to  prevent  the  access 
of  air  and  cold  ;  the  door  to  the  kitchen  is  at  the  same 
time  unclosed  to  admit  warmth.  Before  the  milk  is 
brought  from  the  cow-house,  the  dairymaid  washes  the 
bowls  well  with  hot  water,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  take 
off  the  chill,  but  not  to  warm  them.  The  milk  is  brought 
in  as  milked,  and  is  passed  through  a  sile  into  the  bowls, 
which  are  then  placed  on  the  cistern.  A  thermometer, 
with  its  bulb  immersed  in  the  milk,  denotes  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  ninety  degrees.  The  hot  water  is  applied 
immediately,  at  a  temperature  of  one  hundred  degrees 


384  APPENDIX.  —  horsfall's    system. 

or  upwards,  and  continues  to  flow  for  about  five  min- 
utes, when  the  supply  is  exhausted.  The  bowls  being 
of  thick  earthen  ware.  —  a  slow  conductor,  —  this  does 
not  heighten  the  temperature  of  the  milk.  The  cooling, 
however,  is  thereby  retarded,  as  I  find  the  milk,  after 
standing  four  hours,  maintains  a  temperature  of  sixty 
degrees.  This  application  of  hot  water  is  renewed  at 
each  milking  to  the  new  milk,  but  not  repeated  to  the 
same  after  it  has  cooled.  The  temperature  of  the  dairy 
is  momentarily  increased  to  above  60°,  but  speedily 
subsides,  the  average  temperature  being  52°  to  56°. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  churnings  in  summer  and 
winter  occupy  half  an  hour  or  upwards.  By  increasing 
the  temperature  of  the  cream  I  could  easily  churn  in 
half  the  time,  but  I  should  thereby  injure  the  quality 
of  the  butter.  When  the  butter  has  come  and  gathered 
into  a  mass,  it  is  taken,  together  with  the  butter-milk, 
out  of  the  churn,  which  is  rinsed  with  water ;  the  but- 
ter is  then  placed  again  in  the  churn  with  a  quantity  of 
cold  spring  water,  in  which  salt  has  been  dissolved,  at  the 
rate  of  one  ounce  per  quart  of  cream  ;  after  a  few  min- 
utes' churning,  the  butter  is  again  taken  out;  the  water 
in  which  it  has  been  washed  assumes  a  whitish  appear- 
ance. By  this  process  the  salt  is  equally  diffused 
through  the  butter,  which  requires  little  manipulation, 
and  is  freed  from  a  portion  of  caseous  matter.  A  recent 
analysis  of  my  butter  shows  only  1.07  instead  of  2.45 
per  cent,  of  caseine,  as  before.  That  it  ranks  as  choice 
may  be  inferred  when  I  state  that  my  purchaser  will- 
ingly gives  me  a  penny  per  roll  more  than  the  highest 
price  in  Otley  market,  and  complains  that  I  do  not  sup- 
ply him  with  a  greater  quantity. 

In  this  dairy  of  the  small  dimensions  I  have  described, 
my  produce  of  butter  reaches  at  times  sixty  to  seventy 
pounds  per  week.  Though  the  size  may  appear  incon- 
veniently small,  yet  I  beg  to  remark  on  the  greater 
facility  of  regulating  the  temperature  of  a  small  in  com- 
parison with  a  large  dairy.  This  difficulty  will  be  found 
greater  in  summer  than  in  winter,  as  it  is  far  easier  to 
heighten  than  depress  the  temperature. 


STEAMING    FOOD.  —  BEAN-VINES.  385 

T  have  cooked  or  steamed  my  food  for  several  years. 
It  will  be  observed  that  I  blend  bean-straw,  bran,  and 
malt-combs,  as  flavoring  materials,  with  oat  or  other 
straw  and  rape-cake  ;  the  effect  pf  steaming  is  to  vola- 
tilize the  essential  oils,  in  which  the  flavor  resides,  and 
diffuse  them  through  the  mess.  The  odor  arising  from 
it  resembles  that  observed  from  the  process  of  malting; 
this  imparts  relish  to  the  mess,  and  induces  the  cattle  to 
eat  it  greedily ;  in  addition  to  which,  I  am  disposed  to 
think  that  it  renders  the  food  more  easy  of  digestion 
and  assimilation.  I  use  this  process  with  advantage  for 
fattening,  when  I  am  deficient  in  roots.  With  the  same 
mixed  straw  and  oat-shells,  three  to  four  pounds  each 
of  rape-cake,  and  half  a  pound  of  linseed-oil,  but  with- 
out roots,  I  have  fattened  more  than  thirty  heifers  and 
cows  free  from  milk,  from  March  up  to  the  early  part 
of  May ;  their  gain  has  averaged  fully  fourteen  pounds 
each  per  week,  —  a  result  I  could  not  have  looked  for 
from  the  same  materials,  if  uncooked.  This  process 
seems  to  have  the  effect  of  rendering  linseed-oil  less  of 
a  laxative,  but  cannot  drive  off  any  portion  of  the  fat- 
tening oils,  to  volatilize  which  requires  a  very  high 
temperature.  My  experience  of  the  benefits  of  steam- 
ing is  such  that  if  I  were  deprived  of  it  I  could  not 
continue  to  feed  with  satisfaction. 

I  have  weighed  my  fattening  cattle  for  a  number  of 
years,  and  my  milch  cows  for  more  than  two  years. 
This  practice  enables  me  at  once  to  detect  any  defi- 
ciency in  the  performance  of  the  animals  ;  it  gives  also 
a  stimulus  to  the  feeders,  who  attend  at  the  weighings, 
and  who  are  desirous  that  the  cattle  intrusted  to  their 
care  should  bear  a  comparison  with  their  rivals.  An- 
other obvious  advantage  is  in  avoiding  all  cavils  re- 
specting the  weight  by  my  purchasers,  who,  having 
satisfied  themselves  as  to  the  quality  of  the  animal,  now 
ask  and  obtain  the  most  recent  weighing.  The  usual 
computation  for  a  well-fed  but  not  over  fat  beast  is, 
live  to  dead  weight,  as  21  to  12,  or  100  to  59 f,  with 
such  modifications  as  suggest  themselves  by  appear- 
ances. 

33  25 


386  APPENDIX. 

Though  many  discussions  have  taken  place  on  the 
fattening  of  cattle,  the  not  less  important  branch  of 
dairy  treatment  has  hitherto  been  comparatively  neg- 
lected. I  therefore  venture  to  call  attention  to  con- 
siderations which  have  arisen  from  observations  in  my 
own  practice  affecting  the  chemistry  and  physiology, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  science  of  feeding.  That  I  am 
seeking  aid  from  its  guidance  will  be  apparent,  and  I 
have  no  hesitation  in  admitting  that,  beyond  the  satis- 
faction from  the  better  understanding  of  my  business, 
1  have  latterly  derived  more  benefit  or  profit  from 
examination  of  the  chemical  composition  of  materials 
of  food  than  from  the  treatment  or  feeding  experiments 
of  others  which  have  come  under  my  notice.  So  per- 
suaded am  I  of  the  advantage  of  this,  that  I  do  not  feel 
satisfied  to  continue  the  use  of  any  material,  with  the 
composition  of  which  I  am  not  acquainted,  without 
resorting  to  the  society's  laboratory  for  an  analysis. 

To  one  leading  feature  of  my  practice  I  attach  the 
greatest  importance  —  the  maintenance  of  the  condition 
of  my  cows  giving  a  large  yield  of  milk.  I  am  enabled, 
by  the  addition  of  bean-meal  in  proportion  to  the 
greater  yield  of  milk,  to  avert  the  loss  of  condition  in 
those  giving  sixteen  to  eighteen  quarts  per  day ;  whilst 
on  those  giving  a  less  yield,  and  in  health,  I  invariably 
effect  an  improvement. 

When  we  take  into  consideration  the  disposition  of  a 
cow  to  apply  her  food  rather  to  her  milk  than  to  her 
maintenance  and  improvement,  it  seems  fair  to  infer 
that  the  milk  of  a  cow  gaining  flesh  will  not  be  deficient 
either  in  caseine  or  butter. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  the  efficiency  of  bean-meal 
in  increasing  the  quantity  of  butter  :  I  learn,  also,  from 
observant  dairymen  who  milk  their  own  cows  and  carry 
their  butter  to  market,  that  their  baskets  are  never  so 
well  filled  as  when  their  cows  feed  on  green  clover, 
which,  as  dry  material,  is  nearly  as  rich  in  albumen  as 
beans.  I  am  also  told,  by  those  who  have  used  green 
rape-plant,  that  it  produces  milk  rich  in  butter.  From 
this  we  may  infer  that  albuminous  matter  is  the  most 


BEAN    AND    LINSEED    MEAL  387 

essential  element  in  the  food  of  the  milch  cow,  and  that 
any  deficiency  in  the  supply  of  this  will  be  attended 
with  loss  of  condition,  and  a  consequent  diminution  in 
the  quality  of  her  milk. 

I  am  clearly  of  opinion  that  you  can  increase  the  pro- 
portion of  butter  in  milk  more  than  that  of  caseine,  or 
other  solid  parts.  From  several,  who  have  adopted 
my  treatment,  I  learn  that  on  substituting  rape-cake 
for  beans  they  perceive  an  increased  richness  in  their 
milk.  Mr.  T.  Garnett,  of  Clitheroe,  who  has  used  bean- 
meal  largely  as  an  auxiliary  food  for  milch  cows  during 
the  winter  season,  tells  me  that  when  rape-cake  is  sub- 
stituted, his  dairymaid,  without  being  informed,  per- 
ceives the  change  from  the  increased  richness  of  the 
milk.  Mr.  Garnett  has  also  used  linseed-cake  in  like 
quantity  ;  still  his  dairy  people  prefer  rape-cake. 

Mr.  Whelon,  of  Lancaster,  who  keeps  two  milch  cows 
for  his  own  use,  to  which  he  gave  bean-meal  and  bran 
as  auxiliaries,  has  recently  substituted  rape-cake  *  for 
bean-meal ;  he  informs  me  that  in  a  week  he  saw  a  change 
in  the  richness  of  milk,  with  an  increase  of  butter. 

The  vegetable  oils  are  of  two  distinct  classes :  the 
drying  or  setting  represented  by  linseed,  the  unctuous 
represented  by  rape-oil.  They  consist  of  two  proximate 
elements,  margarine  and  oleine  ;  in  all  probability  they 
will  vary  in  their  proportion  of  these,  but  in  what 
degree  I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain.  Though  the 
agricultural  chemists  make  no  distinction,  as  far  as  J 
am  aware,  between  these  two  classes  of  oils,  the  prac- 
titioners in  medicine  use  them  for  distinct  purposes. 
Cod-liver  oil  has  been  long  used  for  pulmonary  com- 
plaints ;  latterly,  olive,  almond,  and  rape  oils  are  being 
employed  as  substitutes.  These  are  all  of  the  unctuous 
class  of  oils.  Mr.  Rhind,  the  intelligent  medical  prac- 
titioner of  this  village,  called  my  attention  to  some 
experiments  by  Dr.  Leared,  published  in  the  Medical 
Times ,  July  21st,  1855,  with   oleine  alone,   freed  from 

*  The  analysis  of  cotton-seed  cake,  in  comparison  with  rape  and  Unseed 
cake,  in  a  former  chapter  of  this  work,  will  show  the  comparative  value 
of  that  as  food  for  milch  cows. 


388  APPENDIX, 

margarine,  which  showed  marked  superiority  in  the 
effect ;  and  I  now  learn  from  Mr.  Rliind  that  he  is  at 
present  using  with  success  the  pure  oleine,  prepared  by 
Messrs.  Price  &  Co.,  from  cocoa-nut  oil,  one  of  the 
unctuous  class.  That  linseed  and  others  of  the  drying 
oils  are  used  in  medicine  for  a  very  different  purpose, 
it  seems  unnecessary  to  state. 

The  oleine  of  oil  is  known  to  be  more  easy  of  con- 
sumption and  more  available  for  respiration  than  mar- 
garine —  a  property  to  which  its  use  in  medicine  may 
be  attributable.  If  we  examine  the  animal  fats,  tal- 
low, suet,  and  other  fat,  they  are  almost  wholly  of  the 
solid  class,  stearine  or  margarine,  closely  resembling  or 
identical  with  the  margarine  in  plants  ;  whilst  butter  is 
composed  of  oleine  and  margarine,  combining  both  the 
proximate  elements  found  in  vegetable  oils. 

It  seems  worthy  of  remark  that  a  cow  can  yield  a  far 
greater  weight  of  butter  than  she  can  store  up  in  solid 
fat ;  numerous  instances  occur  where  a  cow  gives  off 
two  pounds  of  butter  per  day,  or  fourteen  pounds  per 
week,  whilst  half  that  quantity  will  probably  rarely  be 
laid  on  in  fat.  If  you  allow  a  cow  to  gain  sixteen 
pounds  per  week,  and  reckon  seven  for  fat,  there  will 
only  remain  nine  pounds  for  flesh,  or,  deducting  the 
moisture,  scarcely  three  pounds  (2.97)  per  week,  equal 
to  .42,  or  less  than  half  a  pound  per  day,  of  dry  fibrin. 

The  analyses  of  butter  show  a  very  varying  propor- 
tion of  oleine  and  margarine  fats  :  summer  butter  usually 
contains  of  oleine  sixty  and  margarine  forty  per  cent., 
whilst  in  winter  butter  these  proportions  are  reversed, 
being  forty  of  oleine  to  sixty  of  margarine.  By  ordi- 
nary treatment  the  quantity  of  butter  during  winter  is 
markedly  inferior.  The  common  materials  for  dairy 
cows  in  winter  are  straw  with  turnips  or  mangel,  hay 
alone,  or  hay  with  mangel.  If  we  examine  these  mate 
rials,  we  find  them  deficient  in  oil,  or  in  starch,  sugar, 
etc.  If  a  cow  consume  two  stones  or  twenty-eight 
pounds  of  hay  a  day,  which  is  probably  more  than  she 
can  be  induced  to  eat  on  an  average,  it  will  be  equal  in 
dry  material  to   more   than   one   hundred    pounds    of 


CONSTITUENTS     OF    BUTTER.  389 

young  grass,  which  will  also  satisfy  a  cow.  That  one 
hundred  pounds  of  young  grass  will  yield  more  butter, 
will  scarcely  admit  of  a  doubt.  The  t  venty-eight 
pounds  of  hay  will  be  equal  in'  albuminous  matter  and 
in  oil  to  the  one  hundred  pounds  of  grass  ;  but  in  the 
element  of  starch,  sugar,  etc.,  there  is  a  marked  differ- 
ence. During  the  growth  of  the  plant,  the  starch  and 
sugar  are  converted  into  woody  fibre,  in  which  form 
they  are  scarcely  digestible  or  available  for  respiration. 
It  seems,  then,  not  improbable  that,  when  a  cow  is  sup- 
plied with  hay  only,  she  will  consume  some  portion  of 
ihe  oleine  oil  for  respiration,  and  yield  a  less  quantity 
of  butter  poorer  in  oleine. 

If  you  assume  summer  butter  to  contain  of  oleine,  .  .  60  per  cent 
"    "         "  "  "       •'       "        of  margarine,  40   "     " 

100   "     " 
If  the  cow  consume  of  the  oleine, 36   "     " 

The  quantity  of  butter  will  be  reduced  from  100  to  .     64   "     " 

And  the  proportions  will  then  be,  of  oleine,    .     .     .     40   "     " 
"      "  "  "      "      "    of  margarine,  .     .     60   '*     " 

100   "     " 

If  you  supply  turnips  or  mangel  with  hay,  the  cow 
will  consume  less  of  hay ;  you  thereby  substitute  a 
material  richer  in  sugar,  etc.,  and  poorer  in  oil.  Each 
of  these  materials,  in  the  quantity  a  cow  can  consume, 
is  deficient  in  the  supply  of  albumen  necessary  to  keep 
up  the  condition  of  an  animal  giving  a  full  yield  of 
milk.  To  effect  this,  recourse  must  be  had  to  artificial 
or  concentrated  substances  of  food,  rich  in  albuminous 
matter. 

It  can  scarcely  be  expected,  nor  is  it  desirable,  that 
practical  farmers  should  apply  themselves  to  the  attain- 
ment of  proficiency  in  the  art  of  chemical  investiga- 
tions ;  this  is  more  properly  the  occupation  of  the  pro- 
fessor of  science.  The  following  simple  experiment, 
however,  seems  worth  mentioning.  On  several  occa- 
sions, during  winter,  I  procured  samples  of  butter  from 
my  next  neighbor.  On  placing  these,  with  a  like  quan- 
tity of  my  own,  in  juxtaposition  before  the  fire,  my 
33* 


890 


APPENDIX.  —  HORSFALL'S    SYSTEM. 


butter  melted  with  far  greater  rapidity  —  by  no  means 
an  unsafe  test  of  a  greater  proportion  of  oleine. 

The  chemical  investigation  of  our  natural  and  other 
grasses  has  hitherto  scarcely  had  the  attention  which  it 
deserves.  The  most  valuable  information  on  this  sub- 
ject is  in  the  paper  by  Professor  Way,  on  the  nutritive 
and  fattening  properties  of  the  grasses,  in  vol.  xiv.,  p. 
171,  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society's  Journal. 
These  grasses  were  nearly  all  analyzed  at  the  flowering 
time,  a  stage  at  which  no  occupier  of  grass-land  would 
expect  so  favorable  a  result  in  fattening.  We  much 
prefer  pastures  with  young  grass  not  more  than  a  few 
inches  high,  sufficient  to  afford  a  good  bite.  With  a 
view  to  satisfy  myself  as  to  the  difference  of  compo- 
sition of  the  like  grasses  at  different  stages  of  growth, 
I  sent  to  Professor  Way  a  specimen  of  the  first  crop  of 
hay,  cut  in  the  end  of  June,  when  the  grass  was  in  the 
early  stage  of  flowering,  and  one  of  aftermath,  cut 
towards  the  close  of  September,  from  the  same  meadow, 
the  analyses  of  which  1  give : 


HAY,  FIRST  CROP. 

Moisture, 12.02 

9.24 

,       2.68 

,     39.75 

,     27.41 

8.90 


Albuminous  matter, 
Oil  and  fatty  matter, 
Starch,  gum,  sugar, 
Woody  fibre,       .     . 
Mineral  matter, 


100.00 


AFTERMATH    HAT. 

Moisture, 11.87 

Oil  and  fatty  matter,  .     .  6.84 

Albuminous  matter,    .     .  9.84 

Starch,  gum,  sugar,    .     .  42.25 

Woody  fibre,      ....  19.77 

Mineral  matter,           .     .  9.43 

100.00 


A  comparison  between  these  will  show  a  much 
greater  percentage  of  woody  fibre,  —  27.41  in  the  first 
crop  to  19.77  in  the  aftermath.  The  most  remarkable 
difference,  however,  is  in  the  proportion  of  oil,  being 
2.68  in  the  first  crop  to  6.84  in  the  aftermath. 

On  inquiry  from  an  observing  tenant  of  a  small  dairy 
farm  of  mine,  who  has  frequently  used  aftermath  hay,  I 
learn  that,  as  compared  with  the  first  crop,  he  finds  it 
induce  a  greater  yield  of  milk,  but  attended  with  some 
impoverishment  in  the  condition  of  the  cow,  and  that  he 
uses  it  without  addition  of  turnips  or  other  roots,  which 


NUTRITIVE    QUALITIES     OF    GRASSES.  391 

he  gives  when  using  hay  of  the  first  crop  —  an  answer 
quite  in  accordance  with  what  might  be  expected  from 
its  chemical  composition. 

It  is  likewise  to  be  presumed  that  the  quickness  of 
growth  will  materially  affect  the  composition  of  grasses, 
as  well  as  of  other  vegetables.  Your  gardener  will  tell 
you  that  if  radishes  are  slow  in  growth  they  will  be 
tough  and  woody  ;  that  asparagus  melts  in  eating,  like 
butter,  and  salad  is  crisp  when  grown  quickly.  The 
same  effect  will,  I  apprehend,  be  found  in  grasses  of 
slow  growth :  they  will  contain  more  of  woody  fibre, 
with  less  of  starch  or  sugar.  The  quality  of  butter 
grown  on  poor  pastures  is  characterized  by  greater 
solidity  than  on  rich  feeding  pastures.  The  cows,  having 
to  travel  over  more  space,  require  a  greater  supply  of 
the  elements  of  respiration,  whilst  the  grasses  grown  on 
these  poor  pastures  contain,  in  all  probability,  less  of 
these  in  a  digestible  form  available  for  respiration.  The 
like  result  seems  probable  as  from  common  winter  treat- 
ment—  a  produce  of  butter  less  in  quantity,  and  con- 
taining a  greater  proportion  of  margarine,  and  a  less  of 
oleine. 

It  is  well  known  that  pastures  vary  greatly  in  their 
butter-producing  properties;  there  is,  however,  as  far 
as  I  am  aware,  no  satisfactory  explanation  of  this.  If 
you  watch  cows  on  depasture,  you  observe  them  select 
their  own  food ;  if  you  supply  cows  in  stall  alike  with 
food,  they  will  also  select  for  themselves.  I  give  rape- 
cake  as  a  mixture  to  all,  and  induce  them  to  eat  the 
requisite  quantity ;  yet  some  will  select  the  rape-cake 
first,  and  eat  it  up  clean,  whilst  others  rather  neglect  it 
till  towards  the  close  of  their  meal,  and  then  leave 
pieces  in  the  trough.  Two  Alderneys,—  the  only  cows 
of  the  kind  I  have  as  yet  had,  —  whose  butter-producing 
qualities  are  well  known,  are  particularly  fond  of  rape- 
cake,  and  never  leave  a  morsel.  May  not  these  animals 
be  prompted  by  their  instinct  to  select  such  food  as  is 
best  suited  to  their  wants  and  propensities?  If  so,  it 
seems  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  dairyman 
should  be  informed  of  the  properties  of  food  most  suit- 


392  APPENDIX.  —  horsfall's    system. 

able  for  his  purpose,  especially  whilst  in  a  stall,  where 
they  have  little  opportunity  of  selecting. 

It  appears  worth  the  attention  of  our  society  to  make 
inquiries  as  to  the  localities  which  are  known  as  pro- 
ducing milk  peculiarly  rich  in  butter.  When  travelling 
in  Germany,  I  well  recollect  being  treated  with  pecu- 
liarly rich  milk,  cream,  and  butter,  on  my  tour  between 
Dresden  and  Toplitz,  at  the  station  or  resting-place  on 
the  chaussee  or  turnpike-road,  before  you  descend  a 
very  steep  incline  to  the  valley  in  which  Toplitz  is  situ- 
ated. I  travelled  this  way  after  an  interval  of  several 
years,  when  the  same  treat  was  again  offered.  It  was 
given  as  a  rarity,  and  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  the 
peculiar  adaptation  of  the  herbage  of  the  country  for 
the  production  of  butter. 

Comparison  of  different  methods  of  Feeding 
Dairy  Cows. —  Being  desirous  of  comparing  the  result 
of  my  method  of  feeding  dairy  cows  with  the  system 
usually  practised  in  this  locality,  it  occurred  to  me  that, 
as  my  cows  had  been  accustomed  to  savory  steamed 
food,  a  change  to  ordinary  food  would  be  attended  with 
less  favorable  results  than  if  they  had  been  previously 
treated  in  the  common  mode ;  and  that,  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, it  would  be  better  to  institute  comparisons 
with  two  near  neighbors,  Mr.  Smith  and  Mr.  Pawson, 
whose  practice  and  results  I  had  the  opportunity  of 
inspecting. 

Mr.  Smith's  cow  was  of  rather  small  frame,  but  noted 
for  her  usefulness  as  a  good  milker.  At  the  time  of 
calving  her  third  calf,  about  the  12th  of  November,  she 
was  in  good  condition,  and  gave,  soon  after,  seventeen 
quarts  of  milk  per  day.  Her  owner  states  that  in  the 
first  three  weeks  (up  to  the  time  this  comparison  was 
begun)  her  condition  sensibly  diminished  —  a  result 
which  I  apprehend  will  be  invariable  with  cows  giving 
this  quantity  of  milk  when  fed  on  meadow  hay  only, 
with  which  Mr.  Smith's  cow  was  supplied  ad  libitum, 
and  of  which  she  consumed  twenty-eight  pounds  per 
day.  Mr.  Pawson's  was  a  nice  heifer,  three  years  old 
at  the  time  of  calving  her  first   calf,  October   6th,  in 


MODES     OF    FEEDING    DAIRY     COWS 


393 


more  than  ordinary  condition,  and  gave  abort  sixteen 
quarts  per  day.  Her  owner  states  that  on  the  first  of 
January  her  condition  was  much  diminished.  This  is 
corroborated  by  Mr.  Myers,  a  dealer  in  the  village,  who 
tells  me  that,  previous  to  her  calving,  he  was  desirous 
of  purchasing  her,  and  would  have  given  from  seven- 
teen pounds  ten  shillings  to  eighteen  pounds,  and 
describes  her  as  being  at  that  time  full  of  beef.  Her 
weight  on  the  first  of  January,  7  cwt.  2  qrs.,  bespeaks 
her  condition  as  much  lowered. 

During  the  month  of  October,  and  till  late  in  Novem- 
ber, she  was  turned  out  in  the  daytime  to  graze  on 
aftermath,  and  housed  during  the  night,  where  she  was 
supplied  with  turnips.  From  the  close  of  November 
till  the  first  week  in  February,  her  food  consisted  of 


Meadow  hay  of  inferior  quality, 

Swedish  turnips, 

Ground  oats, 


18  lbs.  per  day. 

45  «      "      " 
9  ti      u       (( 


After  this  the  ground  oats  were  discontinued,  and 
meadow  hay  of  good  quality  was  given  ad  libitum,  with 
forty-five  pounds  of  turnips. 

For  comparison  I  selected  a  cow  of  my  own,  which 
calved  about  the  8th  of  October,  and  gave  soon  after 
eighteen  quarts  of  milk  per  day ;  she  was  also  of  small 
size.  At  the  time  of  calving  her  condition  was  some- 
what higher  than  that  of  Mr.  Smith's.  When  the 
experiment  was  begun,  on  the  first  of  January,  no  per- 
ceivable difference  was  found  in  the  yield  of  milk  of 
Mr.  Smith's  cow  and  my  own,  each  giving  fifteen  and  a, 
half  quarts  per  da)7. 

The  following  table  gives  the  dates  of  calving  of  the 
three  cows,  together  with  their  weights  and  yield  of 
milk  at  the  commencement  and  termination  of  the 
experiment : 


January  1.                                   March  5. 

When  calved. 

Yield  at 
calving. 

Quarts. 

Weight.        I  Yield.  1           Weight.         | Yield 

Cwt.  |  qrs.  |  lbs.  |     Qts.     |  Cwt.  |  qrs.  |  lbs.  |   Qts. 

Mr.  Smith's  — Nov.  12. 
Mr.  Pawson's  —  Oct.  6. 
My  own  —  Oct.  8. 

17 
16 

IK 

8 
7 
1) 

3 

2 
?, 

0 
0 
0 

15* 

12 

]5i 

8    1    0 

7    |    1 
10    j    1 

0    I     92 
0         6! 
0    |  124 

394  APPENDIX.  —  horsfall's   system. 

Mr.  Smith's  cow  lost  in  weight  in  nine  weeks  84 
pounds,  being  9|  pounds  per  week,  with  an  average 
yield  of  12 J  quarts  per  day.  Mr.  Pawson's  lost  28 
pounds.  This  loss,  together  with  the  diminished  yiela 
of  milk,  occurred  almost  wholly  after  the  oats  had  been 
withdrawn  ;  her  weight  on  the  6th  of  February  being 
still  7  cwt.  2  qrs.,  and  her  yield  of  milk  11  quarts  per 
day. 

My  cow  has  gained  in  the  nine  weeks  56  lbs.,  being 
6\  pounds  per  week,  with  an  average  yield  of  14  quarts, 
the  diminution  being  regular.  January  1st,  15£ ;  Feb. 
4th,  14;  March  4th,  12J  ;  making  an  average  yield  of 
14  quarts  per  day.  The  whole  loss  and  gain  of  weight 
will  be  in  flesh  and  fat,  the  cows  having  kept  up  their 
consumption  of  food  and  their  bulk. 

The  weekly  account  of  profit  and  loss  will  stand  as 
follows : 

Mr.  Smith's  cow,  average  yield  for  9  weeks,   12^   quarts      s.     d. 

per  day,  at  2d.  per  quart, 14      7 

Deduct  loss  in  flesh,  9£  lbs.,  at  6d., 4       8 

9     11 
Cost  of  14  stones  hay,  at  6d.  per  stone, 7      0 

Profit, 2     11 

Mr.  Pawson's  cow,  average  during  the  first  five  weeks,  ll£      s.      d 

quarts  per  day,  at  2d.  per  quart, 13       5 

Cost  of  9  stones   inferior    hay   (at  Ad.    per    stone),  per 

week, 3s.  Od. 

Cost  of  63  lbs.  ground  oats,  4«.  Sd.  ;  turnips,  Is.  6d.,    6     2      9       2 

Profit, 4       3 

My  cow,  average  yield  for  9  weeks,  14  quarts  per  day,  at      s.     d. 

2d.  per  quart, 16     4 

Gain  of  flesh,  6|  lbs  per  week,  at  6^.,     .     .     .     .  .       3     1^ 

19     5i 
Cost  of  food  : 

Hay,  63  lbs. ,  at  6d.  per  stone  ;  straw  and  shells     s.     d. 

of  oats,  Is.  c6d.\  mangel,  Is.,         4     6J 

Rape-cake,  35  lbs.  ;  bran,  10.^  lbs.  ;  malt-combs, 

10 j  lbs. ;  bean-meal,  10£  lbs.,        4     0£      8     7 

Profit, 10  lOi 


QUALITY  OF  THE  MANURE. 


395 


The  richer  quality  of  the  manure  will  probably  com- 
pensate for  the  extra  labor,  cooking,  and  attention 
bestowed  upon  my  cow. 

With  a  view  of  extending  the  comparison,  I  give  par- 
ticulars of  the  whole  of  my  cows  the  weights  of  which 
were  registered  on  the  8th  of  October,  and  which  were 
still  on  hand,  free  from  calf,  and  in  a  state  admitting  of 
comparison.  These  were  bought  at  a  neighboring- 
market  in  but  moderate  condition,  and  were  young, 
having  had  two  or  three  calves  each.  A  cow  in  full  con- 
dition attains  her  maximum  yield  in  a  week  or  so  after 
calving;  whilst  those  in  lower  condition  continue,  by 
my  treatment,  to  increase  their  quantity  up  to  about  a 
month  after  calving. 

TABLE. 


No. 


1. 

2. 
4. 
6. 
7. 
11. 

Average, 


Greatest 
yield  per 

October  8. 
Weight. 

February  4. 

Calved. 

Yield 

day. 

Weight. 

day. 

Quarts. 

Cwt.  qrs.   lbs. 

Cwt.  qrs.   lbs. 

Qts. 

July  28. 

12 

9     2    0 

10    0    0 

8 

Aug.  25. 

18 

10    0    0 

11     1    0 

14 

July  28. 

18 

8    2    0 

10     1    0 

15 

Sept.    8. 

16 

10    2    0 

10    2    0 

14 

Sept.    8. 

16 

10     2    0 

11     0    0 

10 

Aug.  25. 

16 

9     10 

9     2    0 

11 

.... 

16 

12 

TABLE CONTINUED. 


No. 


1. 

2. 
4. 
6. 
7. 
11. 

Average, 


Cwt. 

10 
11 
10 
10 

11 

9 


March  4. 


Weight. 


qrs. 
1 
1 

0 
3 
0 
2 


Yield  per 
day. 


Quarts. 

8 

14 
75 
14 
10 
11 

12 


Computed  average 

Oct.  8  to 

per  day  during 

Feb.  4. 

Weeks.        Qts. 

Lbs. 

29  —  10 

84 

27  —  16 

140 

31  —  15 

168 

25  —  15 

28 

25  —  13 

56 

27  —  13£ 

28 

27* -14 

. 

Gain 

in 
weigh 

per 
week 

Lbs. 
4 

61 

8 

1* 
2| 
U 


396  APPENDIX. — horsfall's    system. 

My  cows,  during  the  period  under  consideration, 
were  treated  as  follows :  During  August  and  Septem- 
ber they  were  on  open  pasture  by  day  and  housed  by 
night;  evening  and  morning  they  were  supplied  with 
mown  grass,  and  two  feeds  of  steamed  mixtuie. 
Towards  the  close  of  September  green  rape  was  sub- 
stituted for  the  mown  grass,  with  the  same  allowance 
of  steamed  mixture ;  from  the  8th  of  October,  when 
they  were  wholly  housed,  they  were  supplied  with 
steamed  food  ad  libitum  three  times  per  day.  After 
each  meal  ten  to  twelve  pounds  of  green  rape-plant 
were  given,  and  nine  pounds  of  hay  per  day  till  No- 
vember ;  from  that  time  steamed  food  with  cabbages  or 
kohl  rabi  till  the  early  part  of  February,  when  mangold 
wurzel  was  substituted.  It  will  be  observed  that  I 
give  hay  and  roots  in  limited  quantities,  and  the  steamed 
food  ad  libitum.  I  prefer  this  to  apportioning  the  cake 
and  other  concentrated  food  in  equal  quantities  to  each, 
as  this  steamed  mixture  contains  more  of  the  elements 
essential  to  milk,  and  each  cow  is  thus  at  liberty  to 
satisfy  her  requirements  with  it.  Nos.  2  and  4,  which 
have  given  the  greatest  quantity  of  milk,  have  eaten 
more  than  their  share ;  whilst  No.  1,  which  has  given 
the  least  milk,  has  scarcely  eaten  more  than  half  the 
quantity  of  steamed  mixture  consumed  by  2  or  4. 
The  yield  of  milk  and  the  live  weights  on  the  4th  of 
February  and  the  4th  of  March  scarcely  vary.  During 
February  thirty-four  pounds  of  mangold  were  substituted 
for  kohl  rabi ;  with  this  change  the  cows  became  more 
relaxed.  My  experience  in  weighing,  extending  over 
several  years,  has  shown  me  that  when  animals,  from 
change  of  food,  become  more  relaxed  or  more  costive, 
their  weighings  in  the  former  state  denote  less,  whilst 
in  the  latter  the}7  denote  more,  than  their  actual  gam  in 
condition.  I  have  known  instances  in  which  a  month's 
weighing,  accompanied  by  relaxation,  has  shown  no 
gain,  whilst,  with  restored  consistency,  the  gain  doubled. 

I  now  proceed  to  examine  the  materials  of  food, 
their  composition,  and  the  probable  changes  they 
undergo  in  the  animal  economy. 


FOOD     AND    ITS    COMPOSITION. 


397 


Quantity  and  description  of  food  supplied  to  six  cows  during  twenty- 
seven  and  a  third  weeks,  and  its  composition  in  proximate  elements 
and  minerals. 


Per  day. 

Total  weight  of 
food  given. 

Cos 

per 

x>n. 

Total  cost. 

Weight  of  food 
when  dried. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£       s. 

d. 

lbs. 

Meadow  hay, 

56 

10,715 

4 

0 

0 

19     2 

9 

9,420 

Rape-cake,  . 
Malt-combs, 

30 

5,740 

6 

10 

0 

16  12 

I 

5,456 

9 

1,722 

5 

9 

0 

4    3 

0 

1,660 

Bran,    .   .   . 

9 

1,722 

6 

10 

0 

5     0 

0 

1,500 

Beans,  .  .  . 

9 

1,722 

9 

6 

8 

7     3 

6 

© 

Green  food, 

204 

39,032 

0 

10 

0 

8  14 

6 

5,740 

Oat-straw, . 

50 

9,566 

1 

15 

0 

7    9 

0 

8,407 

Bean-straw, 

12 

2,296 

1 

15 

0 

7  16 

0 

1,964 

Total,  .   . 

379 

72,515 

70    0 

9 

35,647 

Albumen. 

Starch. 

Oil. 

Fibre. 

Minerals. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Meadow  hay, 

990 

4,257 

287 

2,933 

953 

Rape-cake, 

1,803 

2,177 

611 

494 

171 

Malt-combs, 

411 

791 

51 

320 

88 

Bran,    .  .   . 

246 

800 

96 

258 

100 

Beans,  .  .   . 

464 

774 

34 

176 

53 

Green  food, 

862 

3,074 

115 

1,148 

541 

Oat-straw, . 

287 

3,066 

100 

4,526 

428 

Bean-straw, 

376 

725 

51 

594 

217 

Total,  .  . 

5,439 
=  Nitrogen 

15,664 

1,345 

10,449 

2,551 

888  lbs. 

ANALYSIS    OF    MILK    BY    HAIDLEN 

Water, 873. 

Butter, 30. 

Caseine, 48.2 

Milk  sugar, 43.9 

Phosphate  of  lime, 2.31 

Magnesia, 42 

Iron 07 

Chloride  of  potassium, 1.44 

Sodium  and  Soda,        66 


1000.00 


34 


398  APPENDIX. — horsfall's   system. 

Production  of  milk  by  6  cows,  average  14  quarts  per 
day  each,  for  27^  weeks  =  16,072  quarts,  which  at  41 
oz.  per  quart  =  41,184  lbs. 

lbs. 
When  dry  or  free  from  moisture, 5230 

Butter  in  16,072  quarts,  at  30  per  1000 =  1235 

Caseinein      "  "         "  48.2  per  1000, =1977 

Sugar  of  milk,  =  1804 

Minerais.{^Pha^°nime;   ;   ;   ;   ;   ;   ;   ;   jg  }  =  214 

5230 
Gain  of  weight  500  lbs.,  of  which  I  compute  300  lbs.  as  fat. 

200  lbs.  as  flesh. 

500 

Nitrogen, 316  lbs. 

Phosphate  of  lime, 99 

Phosphoric  acid, —  45.50 

Cost  of  food  per  cow  per  week,       .      85.  6£c?. 
When  the  yield  of  milk  is  less,  the  cost  of  food  is  reduced  to  7*-  tid 
per  week. 

5.     d. 

Gross  return  in  milk, 16    4 

"         "       "  weight, 16 

"         *«       "  manure, 2     8 

20     6 

ANALYSIS    OF    EXCREMENT    BY    PROFESSOR   WAY. 

Per  cent. 

Moisture, 84.85 

Phosphoric  acid, 39 

Potash, 58 

Soda, 22 

Other  substances, ....     13.96 

100. 

Nitrogen, 41 

Ammonia, 49 

Manure,  88  lbs.  per  cow  per  day. 

For  6  cows  per  day  528  lbs.  =  3696  lbs.  per  week. 
"  "     "     for  27 i  weeks  101,028  lbs.,  containing  of 

Nitrogen, 414  lbe 

Phosphoric  acid, 393 

Potash, 585 


ANALYSES     OF    INGREDIENTS.  399 

Nitrogen  incorporated  in  food, 888  lbs 

Caseine, 316. 

Fibrin, 7.35 

Manure, 414. 

Balance  consumed  in  perspiration,    .     .     .     .    150.65 

888.00 
The  materials  of  food  are  shown  to  have  cost     .     .     £70    05     9d. 

£.  s  d. 
(rross  value  16,072  quarts  of  milk,  at  2d.  per  quart,  .  133  18  8 
(lain  of  weight  500  lbs.,  at  &d.  per  lb., 12     10     0 

Nitrogen  in  manure  414  lbs.  =  Ammonia     £.5.     d. 

494  lbs.,  at  6d., 12    7     0 

Phosphoric  acid  393  lbs.,  at  l£d.  per  lb.,    .291 
Potash  585  lbs.,  at  3d.  per  lb.,     ....      763 

22      2    4 

£168     11    0 

Manure  per  cow  per  day  88  lbs.,  per  week  616  lbs.  s.     d. 

Containing  ammonia  3  lbs 16 

Phosphoric  acid  2.40  lbs 0     3| 

Potash  3.57  lbs., 0  10* 

Value  of  a  cow's  excrement,  per  week,        ....     2     8 

The  analyses  of  the  chief  ingredients  of  my  own 
produce,  or  such  extra  materials  as  I  usually  purchase, 
have  been  made  by  Professor  Way  ;  for  other  materials 
T  have  had  recourse  to  a  very  useful  compilation  by  Mr. 
Hemming  (vol.  xiii.,  p.  449,  of  the  Society's  Journal), 
and  to  Morton's  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture."  The 
analysis  of  straw  is  that  of  oat-straw ;  that  of  green  food 
is  derived  from  the  analysis  of  rape-plant,  cabbages,  and 
kohl  rabi.  During  February  and  March  I  have  been 
using  wheat  and  barley  straw  with  mangold,  and,  as  ttese 
materials  contain  less  oil,  I  give  in  the  steamed  food 
three  ounces  of  linseed-oil  per  day  to  each  animal.  For 
the  composition  of  milk  I  adopt  that  by  Haidlen,  whose 
method  of  analysis  is  reputed  to  be  the  most  accurate, 
the  proportion  of  butter  in  my  milk  being  this  season 
very  similar  to  that  given  by  him. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  is  the  gross  return  for 
twenty-seven  and  one  third   weeks   from  the  time  of 


400  APPENDIX.  —  HORSFALL'S    SYSTEM. 

calving,  from  which  will  have  to  be  deducted  expense 
of  attendance,  etc. 

£.     s.    d. 
The  materials  used  for  food  are  found  to  have  cost  .     .     70       0       9 

The  value  of  these  materials  as  manure  consists  of  888 

lbs.  nitrogen  =  10G1  lbs.  ammonia,  at  6rf.,.     .     .     26     10       6 
Phosphoric  acid  and  potash, 3     15       4 

Value  of  food  if  employed  as  manure,       .     .     .  £36       5     10 

The  16,072  quarts  of  milk,  at  Id.  per  quart  for  new 
milk,  at  which  price  it  enters  largely  into  con- 
sumption as  food  for  man,  amount  to  £133     18     8 

The  nitrogen  in  the  milk  316  lbs.  =  ammonia    £.5.    d. 

378  lbs.,  at  6d.  per  lb.,         9     9     0 

Phosphoric  acid  in  ditto.  45£  lbs. ,  at  l^d.  per  lb. ,  0     5     8 

£9     14     8 

From  these  statements  it  will  be  seen  that  materials 
used  as  food  for  cattle  represent  double  the  value  they 
would  do  if  used  for  manure,  whilst  that  portion  con- 
verted into  food  fitted  for  the  use  of  man  represents  a 
value  thirteen  to  fourteen  times  greater  than  it  would 
as  manure. 

It  then  appears  clear  that  it  is  for  the  feeder's  profit 
to  use  his  produce  as  much  as  possible  as  food  for 
cattle,  with  the  view  to  convert  it  with  the  utmost 
economy  into  food  for  man,,  and  thus  increase  rathei 
than  enrich  his  manure-heap. 

The  calculation  of  caseine  in  milk  is  based  upon  the 
supposition  that  my  milk  is  equal  in  its  proportion  of 
that  element  to  that  analyzed  by  Haidlen.  Several 
analyses  by  other  chemists  show  a  less  percentage,  4  to 
4.50.  As  my  cows  are  adequately  supplied  with 
albuminous  matter,  I  have  a  right  to  presume  on  their 
milk  being  rich  in  caseine. 

The  loss  of  nitrogen  by  perspiration,  150.65  lbs.,  is 
nearly  17  per  cent.  Boussingault  found  a  loss  of  13.50 
of  nitrogen  in  a  cow  giving  milk. 

The  abstraction  of  nitrogen  in   the  milk   is  computed  at  £.5.  d. 

316  lbs.,  value, 990 

The  abstraction  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  milk  is  com- 
puted at  48£  lbs. ,        058 


COMPOSITION    OF    MANURE. 


401 


Either  the  rape-cake  or  bran  alone  suffices  for  the 
restoration  of  the  phosphoric  acid. 

The  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  manure  is  393 
pounds,  being  about  sixteen  per  cent,  of  the  whole  ash 
or  mineral  matter.  The  ash  of  meadow  hay  contains 
about  14  per  cent.,  that  of  rape-cake  30  per  cent.,  bran 
50  per  cent.,  malt-combs  25  per  cent.,  and  turnips,  &c, 
10  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid. 

The  amount  of  potash  in  the  excrement  is  616 
pounds,  being  about  25  per  cent,  of  the  whole  ash  or 
mineral  matter.  The  ash  of  meadow  hay  contains  about 
20  per  cent,  ;  rape-cake,  21  per  cent. ;  malt-combs,  37 
per  cent, ;  turnips  (various),  44  per  cent. ;  from  which 
it  may  be  inferred  that  the  sample  of  excrement  sent  to 
Professor  Way  for  analysis  did  not  contain  more  than  a 
fair  proportion  of  these  ingredients. 

To  ascertain  the  quantity  of  excrement,  the  contents 
of  the  tanks  into  which  the  cows  had  dropped  their 
solid  and  liquid  excrement  during  five  weeks  were 
weighed,  and  found  to  be  500  cwt,  2  qrs.  0  lbs  ,  from 
18  cows,  being  88  lbs.  per  cow  per  day.  The  sample 
for  analysis  was  taken  from  that  which  the  cows  had 
deposited  within  the  preceding  24  hours.  This  was 
collected  in  the  mud-cart,  well  blended,  and  sent  off 
quite  fresh. 

It  is  sufficiently  proved,  by  the  experience  of  this 
district,  that  20  pounds  of  meadow  hay  suffice^  for  the 
maintenance  of  a  cow  of  fair  size  in  store  condition  ;  a 
like  result  is  stated  to  be  obtained  from  120  pounds  of 
turnips  per  day.  The  six  cows  will  have  then  required, 
during  the  27|  weeks,  for  their  maintenance,  only 


lbs. 
120 
150 


Per  day. 


of  hay  or  for 
of  turnips,  or  for 


Weeks. 

Total 
Weight. 

27  r 

27£ 

lbs. 

22,960 

137,760 

containing  of 


Albumi- 
nous mat. 

Oil. 

2127 
2295 

616 
306 

Starch. 
&c. 


9130 
9100 


They  will  further  have  required  adequate  food  — 
34*  26 


*02 


APPENDIX. —  HORSFALL'S    SYSTEM. 


Albuminous 

matter,    fibrin, 

and  caseinev 

Oil  and  but- 
ter. 

Starch     and 

sugar  of 

milk. 

For  the  production  of 

And  for  maintenance  by  turnips,  .    . 

2,116 

2,295 

1,235 
306 

1,894 
9,100 

The  food  supplied  is  computed  do 
have  contained        

4,411 
5,459 

1,541 
1,345 

10,994 
15,66t 

I  omit  the  minerals,  which  are  observed  to  be  in 
excess  of  the  requirements. 

For  the  maintenance  of  a  fair-sized  cow,  for  one  day, 
in  a  normal  state,  the  following  elements  seem  ade- 
quate : 


In    20  lbs.  of  hay,   . 
In  120  "      "  turnips, 


Albumen. 


1.85 

1.98 


Oil. 


.536 
.26 


Starch,  &c. 


7.95 

7.82 


.90 
.97 


Mineral    in- 
gredients. 
Phosphoric 
acid. 


1.11 

1.9 


When  cows  are  in  milk,  there  occurs  a  much  greater 
activity  of  the  functions ;  they  eat  and  drink  more, 
evacuate  more  excrement,  and,  in  all  probability,  spend 
considerably  more  food  in  respiration.  Whilst  the 
17.60  lbs.  per  day  dry  matter  in  20  lbs.  of  hay  are  found 
adequate  for  the  maintenance  of  a  cow  in  a  store  state, 
the  six  cows  in  milk  have  eaten  on  the  average  21.37 
lbs.  solid  matter  per  day  during  the  27|  weeks.  When 
I  have  fattened  cattle  together  with  a  number  of  milch 
cows  of  similar  size,  which  gave  on  an  average  eight 
quarts  of  milk  per  day,  the  whole  being  fed  with  moist 
steamed  food,  and  receiving  the  same  allowance  of 
green  food,  I  have  found  the  fattening  cattle  refuse 
water,  whilst  the  milch  cows  on  the  average  drank 
upwards  of  40  pounds  per  day  of  water  given  sepa- 
rately. The  eight  quarts  of  milk  contain  only  about 
17.58  lbs.  of  water;  still,  in  several  analyses  of  excrement, 
I  have  noticed  little  difference  in  the  percentage  of 
moisture  in  that  from  the  fattening  animals  as  compared 
with  that  from  cows  giving  milk. 


ELEMENTS     REQUIRED     TO    FORM    BUTTER.     403 

These  facts  would  seem  to  show  that  upwards  of  20 
lbs.  more  water  were  given  off  from  the  lungs  and  pores 
of  the  skin  of  a  milking  than  of  a  fattening  animal. 

The  excrement  of  the  six  milch  cows,  88  lbs.  per  clay 
on  the  average,  is  found  to  contain  of  nitrogen  36, 
equal  to  that  in  2.25  lbs.  of  albumen;  whilst  1.85  of 
albumen  in  the  20  lbs.  of  hay  is  found  adequate  for 
maintenance. 

On  comparing  the  supply  of  the  food  to  the  six  milch 
cows  with  their  requirements  and  production,  there 
seems  an  excess  in  the  albuminous  matter,  a  deficiency 
in  the  oil  for  the  fat  and  butter,  an  excess  in  the  starch, 
&c.  Taking,  however,  the  increased  activity  of  the 
animal  functions,  and  consequent  consumption  of  food 
by  the  milch  cow,  I  am  not  encouraged  to  lower  my 
standard  of  food.  That  it  has  sufficed  is  abundantly 
proved,  as  each  of  the  six  cows  under  observation  has 
gained  in  condition  during  27^  weeks. 

My  observations  on  nutrition  tend  to  the  conclusion 
that  if  you  supply  animals  with  starch,  sugar,  &c,  to 
satisfy  their  requirements  for  respiration,  you  enable 
them  to  convert  the  oil  of  their  food  into  butter  or  fat 
to  such  extent  as  their  particular  organism  is  fitted  for 
effecting  it. 

On  the  12th  of  March  T  purchased  Mr.  Smith's  cow 
(see  p.  392)  for  twelve  pounds  ten  shillings,  being  more 
than  her  market  value,  for  the  purpose  of  trying  her  on 
my  food ;  her  yield  of  milk  had  then  diminished  to  8 
quarts  per  day.  On  the  31st  of  March,  four  weeks  from 
the  former  weighing,  and  nineteen  days  after  being 
treated  with  my  food,  her  yield  of  milk  had  increased  to 
9£  quarts  per  day,  and  her  weight  to  8  cwt.  1  qr.,  being 
28  lbs.  increase. 

Mr.  Pawson's  cow,  which  was  continued  on  the  same 
food,  namely,  meadow  hay  ad  libitum,  and  a  move 
limited  supply  of  turnips,  reduced  her  yield  of  milk  to 
less  than  5  quarts  per  day,  without  alteration  in  her 
weight. 

My  cow  first  placed  on  trial  with  those  of  Mr.  Smith 
and  Mr.  Pawson  gave  a  yield  of  milk  of  12  quarts  per 


404 


APPENDIX.  —  HORSFALL'S    SYSTEM. 


day,  and  gained  28  lbs.  in  the   four  weeks,  her  weighl 
on  the  31st  of  March  being  10  cwt.  2  qrs. 

The  weight  and  the  yield  of  milk  of  the  six,  on  the 
31st  of  March,  were: 


Yield  of 

Yield  of 

March  4. 

milk 

March  31. 

milk 

Gain  in 

per   day. 

cwt.    qr.  lbs. 

per  day. 

4  weeks. 

cwt.    qr.  Ib3. 

quarts. 

quarts. 

lbs. 

Weight  of  No.  1. 

10    0  26 

8 

10     3     0 

8.9 

58 

(<       it    u    2. 

11     1     0 

14 

11     3     0 

14.9 

56 

U              H        l(        iJ.> 

10    0    0 

14* 

10     1     0 

13 

28 

"    "    6. 

10     3     0 

14 

11     2    0 

12 

84 

u          ft      t<      - 

11     0    0 

10 

11     3    0 

10 

84 

"          "      "   11. 

9     2    0 

11 

10     1     0 

12 

84 

On  referring  to  the  previous  weighing,  there  was 
little  or  no  gain  from  Feb.  4th  to  March  4th,  the  cows 
being  at  that  time  in  a  somewhat  more  relaxed  state. 
During  March  they  wholly  regained  their  consistency. 
The  gain  shown  in  the  weighing,  March  31,  by  the  six 
cows,  appears  therefore  unusually  great.  It  should, 
however,  be  computed  as  made*  during  the  eight  weeks 
from  Feb.  4th  to  March  31,  being  with  an  average  yield 
of  nearly  12  quarts  (11.66)  per  day  each,  at  the  rate 
of  8^  lbs.  each  per  week  on  the  average. 

No.  11,  it  will  be  observed,  is  stated  as  giving  more 
milk  on  the  31st  than  on  the  4th  of  March.  It 
occasionally  happens  that  cows  drop  their  yield  of  milk 
for  a  day  or  two,  and  then  regain  it,  especially  when  in 
use.  The  whole  of  these  six  cows  were  kept  free  from 
calf  till  February,  when  Nos.  2  and  4  were  sent  to  bull. 
I  had  some  hesitation  in  regard  to  No.  4,  from  her  hav- 
ing suffered  from  pleuro.  Her  milk,  tested  by  a  lac- 
tometer, denoted  a  less  than  average  proportion  of 
ci earn  ;  still,  in  quantity,  and  keeping  up  its  yield  for  a 
length  of  time,  being  of  more  than  ordinary  capability, 
I  decided  to  retain  her. 

Nos.  1  and  7,  which  are  giving  respectively  8  and  10 
quarts  per  day,  are  in  a  state  of  fatness  ;  they  will 
probably  be  sold  in  June  as  prime  fat,  when  their  yield 
of  milk  will  probably  be  6  and  8  quarts  per  day  each. 


PROPORTION    OF    CREAM.  405 

They  may  be  expected  to  fetch  twenty  pounds  to 
twenty-three  pounds.  No.  6  is  also  in  a  state  of  for- 
wardness. No.  11,  which  suffered  considerably  from 
pleuro,  is  in  comparatively  lower  condition. 

During  the  season  from  the  close  of  October  to  the 
close  of  January,  I  avoid  purchasing  near-calving  cows, 
which  are  then  unusually  clear,  my  replenishments  being 
made  with  cows  giving  a  low  range  of  milk,  and 
intended  for  fattening.  I  find  them  more  profitable 
than  those  which  are  quite  dry.  The  present  season  I 
had  additional  grounds  for  abstaining  from  buying  high- 
priced  cows,  from  the  recent  presence  of  pleuro. 

On  the  2d  of  March  I  had  occasion  to  purchase  a 
calving  cow,  which  was  reported  to  have  calved  on  the 
28th  of  February.  Her  weight  on  the  4th  of  March  was 
9  cwt.  1  qr.  I  supplied  her  with  35  lbs.  of  mangold,  and 
haj7  ad  libitum,  of  which  she  ate  22  lbs.  per  day.  The 
greatest  yield  she  attained  was  somewhat  more  than  13 
quarts  per  day.  On  the  31st  of  March  her  weight  was 
9  cwt.,  being  a  loss  of  28  lbs.  in  four  weeks.  Her 
yield  of  milk  had  diminished  to  \1\  quarts  per  day.  A 
week  after  this  her  milk,  during  six  days,  was  kept 
apart,  and  averaged  10  quarts  per  day  ;  being  at  first 
rather  more,  at  the  close  rather  less,  than  this.  The 
cream  produced  from  these  60  quarts  was  9  pints,  the 
butter  63  oz.  The  butter  from  each  quart  of  cream 
was  14  oz.  The  proportion  of  butter  to  milk  was  63 
oz.  from  60  quarts  —  rather  more  than  1  oz.  per  quart. 

An  equal  quantity  of  milk  from  a  cow  (calved  Oct. 
8th)  treated  with  steamed  food,  and  set  apart  for  com- 
parison, gave  less  than  7  pints  of  cream,  which  pro- 
duced 79  oz.  of  butter. 

In  quality  and  agreeableness  the  butter  from  steamed 
food  and  cake  was  decidedly  superior  to  that  from  hay 
and  mangold. 

Mr.  Stansfeld,  of  Chertsey,  has  supplied  me  with  the 
following  interesting  particulars  of  two  Alderney  cows 
which  were  treated  as  follows : 

From  Dec.  1st  to  Jan  15th,  with  Swedes  and  meadow 
hay. 


406 


APPENDIX.  —  HORSFALL'S    SYSTEM 


From  Jan.  15th  to  Feb.  17th,  pulped  and  fermented 
Swedes,  meadow  hay,  and  3  lbs.  rape-cake,  2  lbs.  bean- 
meal,  2  lbs.  bran,  2  lbs.  malt-combs. 

From  Feb.  17th  to  May  1st,  5  lbs.  rape-cake,  2  lbs. 
brau,  2  lbs.  malt-combs. 

Results  : 

December  1st  to  January  15th,  yield  of  butter  from 
each  quart  of  cream,  10|  oz. 

January  15th  to  February  17th,  yield  of  butter  from 
each  quart  of  cream,  14  oz. 

February  17th  to  May  1st,  yield  of  butter  from  each 
quart  of  cream,  18|  oz. 

The  yield  of  butter  in  proportion  to  milk,  Dec.  1st  to 
Jan.  15th,  is  described  as  unsatisfactory. 

The  yield  of  butter  in  proportion  to  milk,  Feb.  17th 
to  May,  as  2  oz.  per  quart,  which  is  their  maximum  pro- 
portion. 

Soon  after  calving  the  two  cows  gave  18  quarts  of 
milk  per  day;  on  the  15th  of  May,  15  quarts  per  day. 

Mr.  Stansfeld  has  completely  satisfied  himself  that 
by  the  process  of  fermentation  the  turnip  loses  its 
disagreeable  taste,  and  that  his  butter  is  of  excellent 
quality. 

If  I  take  the  supply  of  turnips,  120  lbs.  per  day,  as 
requisite  for  the  maintenance  only  of  the  cow,  the 
nutritive  elements  will  be : 


Albumen. 

1.79 


Oil.  Starch  and  sugar. 

.264  7.92 


Reckoning  the  oil  as  used  for  respiration,  and  computing  it 

in  proportion  of  5  to  2  as  compared  with  starch  =      .     .66 


8.58 


The  food  supplied  to  the  cow  consists  of: 


Lbs. 

Water. 

Dry. 

Albu- 
men. 

]  Starch 
Oil.    1    and 
|  sugar. 

Fibre. 

Mine- 
rals. 

Phos 
phorit 
acid. 

Hay,      .     .     . 

Stored  mangold, 

22 
35 

2i 
28.0 

19.36 

7. 

2.03 
1.05 

.59 

8.74 
4.20 

6.05 
1.05 

1.95 
.70 

.30 
.05 

26.36 

3.08 

.59 

12.94 

7.10 

2.65 

.35 

OIL    OP     THE     BUTTER.  407 


oz. 

The  13  quarts  of  milk  yielded  of  butter,    ....     13.60 
Deduct  for  moisture,  &c,        2.28 

11.32 
Butter  in  the  skimmed  milk  estimated  as 68 

12.00  oz 
12  ounces  of  pure  oil  in  the  butter  are  \  lb.  =  .     .         .75 

lb. 

The  oil  in  the  food,        59 

The  starch  and  sugar, 12.94 

Used  for  animal  respiration, 8.58 

4.36 

There  appears,  then,  in  this  supply  of  food,  .59  lbs.  oil 
and  4.36  lbs.  starch  for  the  production  of  .75  in  the 
butter  from  13  quarts  per  day,  the  cow's  greatest  yield. 
At  the  time  the  milk  was  tested,  aftermath  hay  was  sub- 
stituted for  first-crop  hay,  in  equal  quantity.  This,  it 
will  be  observed,  is  decidedly  richer  in  oil.  Her  prod 
uce  had  lessened  to  10  quarts  per  day  ;  her  production 
of  butter  was  10.50  oz.  per  day,  or  of  pure  oil  about  9 
oz. ;  for  the  supply  of  oil  the  aftermath  hay  alone  would 
be  much  more  than  adequate. 

On  examining  the  adequacy  of  the  food  for  the  sup- 
ply of  albumen  for  the  caseine, 

lbs. 

I  find  this  to  be, 3.08 

I  assume  that  in  120  lbs.  of  turnips,  as  required  for 

maintenance,  in  a  normal  state, 1.98 

1.10 

Which,  according  to  Haidlen's  analysis,  will  be  adequate 
to  the  supply  of  8.60  quarts  per  day.  The  supply  of 
mineral  substances  is  in  excess. 

The  cow,  under  this  treatment,  gave, 

Soon  after  calving,  fully 13  quarts  per  day. 

Five  weeks  after  calving, 11^     "        "     " 

In  less  than  8  weeks  after  calving,  .     .       9       "        "     " 

And  with  this  there  occurred  also  a  loss  of  weight. 
We  find  this  cow  supplied  with  food  amply  rich  in 


408  APPENDIX.  —  horsfall's    system. 

every  element  suited  to  her  wants  and  purposes,  with 
the  exception  of  the  nitrogenous  principle  only,  lower- 
ing her  condition,  and  likewise  her  yield  of  milk,  till  it 
approaches  a  quantity  for  which  her  food  enables  her 
to  supply  a  due  proportion  of  caseine. 

About  the  20th  of  April,  the  cow's  yield  being  re- 
duced to  9  quarts  per  day,  her  food  was  changed  to 
steamed  mixture.  Soon  after  this  her  yield  increased 
to  11  quarts  per  day.  Her  weight,  April  28th,  9  cwt. ; 
May  16th,  9  cwt.  14  lbs.:  yield  of  milk,  11  quarts. 

I  now  introduce  the  dairy  statistics  of  Mr.  Alcock,  of 
Aireville,  Skipton,  who  has  for  some  time  been  prac- 
tising my  method  of  treatment,  with  such  modifications 
as  are  suited  to  his  circumstances. 

During  the  winter  season,  Mr.  Alcock's  food  consisted 
of  mangold,  of  which  he  gave  20  lbs.  per  day  to  each, 
uncooked,  together  with  steamed  food  ad  libitum,  con- 
sisting of  wheat  and  bean  straw,  and  shells  of  oats. 

Carob  bean  and  Indian  meal,  for  each,  .     .  3  lbs.  per  day. 

Bran  and  malt-combs, 1    "      "     " 

Bean-meal, 3£  "      "     « 

Rape-cake,* 3    "      "     " 

Of  extra  food, 11| 

From  March  19,  when  his  store  of  mangold  was  ex- 
hausted, he  increased  his  supply  of  Indian  meal  to  4 
lbs.  per  day,  and  omitted  the  carob  bean. 

During  the  month  of  January,  Mr.  Alcock  obtained 
from  759  quarts  of  milk  1323  oz.  of  butter,  being  from 
each  16  quarts  26|  oz. ;  during  February  and  March, 
from  7368  quarts  of  milk  12,453  oz.  of  butter,  or  from 
each  16  quarts  fully  27  oz. :  so  that  rather  less  than 
9|  quarts  of  milk  have  produced  16  oz.  of  butter. 
The  average  produce  from  each  quart  of  cream  was 
20£  oz. 

Mr.  Alcock  fattens  his  cows  whilst  giving  milk,  and 
sells  them  whilst  giving  4  to  6  quarts  per  day.     He 

*  The  rape-cake  used  by  Mr.  Alcock  was  of  foreign  manufacture,  evi- 
dently rich  in  oil,  but  containing  mustai'd,  and  on  this  accr  a  at  supplied  in 
less  proportion. 


QUALITY     OP    THE     BUTTER.  409 

quite  agrees  with  me  that  it  is  far  more  profitable  to 
buy  far-milked  cows  for  fattening;  and  obtains,  from  a 
change  to  his  food,  2  to  3  quarts  per  day  more  than  the 
cow  had  given  previously. 

Though  Mr.  Alcock's  cream  is  not  so  rich  as  what  I 
have  described  on  pp.  377  and  378,  it  is  more  than 
ordinarily  so.  His  mode  of  separating  his  milk  from 
his  cream  differs  from  my  own,  his  milk  being  set  up  in 
leaden  vessels,  from  which,  on  the  cream  being  formed, 
the  old  milk  is  drawn,  by  taking  a  plug  from  a  hollow 
tube,  with  perforated  holes  in  the  centre  of  the  vessel. 
To  this  difference  I  am  disposed  in  some  degree  to 
attribute  the  less  richness  of  Mr.  Alcock's  cream.  On 
examining  the  cream  with  a  spoon,  after  the  dairy- 
keeper  had  drawn  off  the  milk,  I  observed  some  portion 
of  milk,  which  would  have  escaped  through  my  per- 
forated skimmer. 

Mr.  Alcock's  proportion  of  butter  from  milk,  which  is 
the  matter  of  practical  importance,  is  greater  than  what 
I  have  shown  on  a  preceding  page>  being  from  each  16 
quarts  of  milk  27  oz.  of  butter. 

Quality  of  Butter.  —  In  January,  1857,  samples  of 
about  56  oz.  each,  of  butter  of  my  own,  and  also  of 
Mr.  Alcock's,  were  sent  to  the  laboratory  of  Messrs. 
Price  &  Co.'s  candle-works,  at  Belmont. 

My  butter  was  found  to  consist  of  (taking  the  pure 
fat  only), 

Hard  fat,  mostly  margarine,  fusible  at  950°,    .  .     45.9 

Liquid,  oroleine, •     54.1 

100.0 
Mr.  Alcock's, 

Hard  fat,  mostly  margarine,  fusible  at  10°,      .     .     .     36.0 
Liquid,  or  oleine,        64.0 

100.0 

For  these  analyses  of  butter  the  agricultural  public 

is  indebted   to  the  good  offices  of  Mr.  George  Wilson, 

director  of  Messrs.  Price  &  Co.'s  manufactory.     It  will 

be  observed  that  Mr.  Alcock's  milk  is  richer  in  butter. 

35 


410  APPENDIX. HORSFALL'S     SYSTEM. 

and  that  his  butter  is  also  richer  in  proportion  of  oleine 
to  margarine  than  my  own. 

Professor  Thompson  ("  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chem- 
istry," 6th  edition,  p.  317)  states  that  winter  butter 
consists  more  of  solid,  and  summer  more  of  liquid  or 
oleine  fat. 

An  analysis  of  butter  made  in  Vosges  gives  : 

Summer.  Winter. 

Solid  or  margarine  fat, 40  65 

Liquid  (or  oleine)  fat, 60  35 

100  100 

In  Lehmann's  "Physiological  Chemistry n  (Leipsic 
edition,  vol.  ii.,  p.  329),  an  analysis  of  butter  by  Bromus 
gives : 

Margarine, 68 

Oleine, 30 

Special  butter-oil, 2 

100 

It  will  be  observed  that  my  butter  may  be  classed  as 
summer  butter,  and  that  Mr.  Alcock's  is  the  richest  in 
the  proportion  of  oleine.  Both  were  produced  in  the 
month  of  January. 

These  results  are  important,  and  completely  establish 
the  conclusion  I  had  previously  formed,  that  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  butter  depend  essentially  on  the 
food  and  treatment;  and  that  by  suitable  means  you 
can  produce  as  much  and  as  rich  butter  in  whiter  as  in 
summer. 


PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

In  the  chapter  on  the  Diseases  of  Dairy  Stock,  p.  271, 
allusion  only  was  made  to  pleuro-pneumonia  as  one  of 
the  fatal  epizootics  that  have  from  time  to  time  decimated 
the  cattle  of  Europe.  At  the  time  the  first  editions  of 
this  work  appeared,  no  instances  of  this  terrible  scourge 
had,  to  my  knowledge,  appeared  in  this  country. 

During  the  year  1859,  however,  several  cases  occurred 
in  Massachusetts  and  New  Jersey,  which,  from  their  symp- 
toms both  before  and  after  death,  can  leave  little  or  no 
doubt  of  their  being  genuine  pleuro-pneumonia,  while  at 
the  same  time  they  add  weight  to  the  already  conclusive 
testimony  that  the  disease  is  contagious  or  infectious  in 
its  character.  Whatever  modification  may  appear  in  the 
symptoms  exhibited  in  the  cases  in  this  country,  as  com- 
pared with  those  in  England  and  on  the  continent,  may 
be  readily  accounted  for  on  the  ground  of  difference  of 
climate,  treatment,  <fcc. 

This  dangerous  and  fatal  disease  derives  its  name  from 
the  parts  affected.  The  pleura  is  the  membrane  which 
covers  the  lungs  and  lines  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  and 
pneumonia  the  substance  of  the  lung  itself.  Pleuro- 
pneumonia is  applied  to  the  compound  disease  in  which 
both  these  parts  are  attacked,  and  which,  in  its  early 
stages,  appears  to  be  of  an  inflammatory  character.  The 
lungs  are  found,  on  a  post-mortem  examination,  to  have 
lost  their  light,  porous  consistence,  and  their  pinkish  color, 
and  to  have  become  very  dark,  condensed,  or  consolidated, 
tilled  with  lymph  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  impervious 
to  air  and  incapable  of  expansion  and  contraction,  indi- 
cating, of  course,  that  they  had  lost  the  power  of  vital- 
izing the  blood,  when  the  animal  must  die.     A  large  body 

(411) 


412        APPENDIX. — PLEURO-PNBUMONIA. 

of  water  is  often  found  in  the  chest,  as  is  observed  in 
cases  of  pleurisy. 

The  early  symptoms  of  pleuro-pneumonia  are  often 
quite  obscure,  and  would  not  be  perceived  where  the  dis- 
ease was  not  suspected,  and  the  animal  carefully  watched, 
and  perhaps  not  even  then  till  it  had  considerably  ad- 
vanced. The  interior  of 'the  eyelids  becomes  red,  while 
in  the  healthy  animal  it  is  a  beautiful  rose  color  ;  the 
pulse  increases  five  or  six  beats  over  its  usual  activity, 
that  of  the  healthy  animal,  from  five  to  eight  years,  being 
about  forty-eight  or  fifty  a  minute,  that  of  the  young  an- 
imal being  quicker — sometimes  even  as  high  as  sixty. 
The  respirations  are  increased  in  activity  from  five  to 
ten  per  minute,  the  natural  activity  being  about  seven- 
teen per  minute.  The  noise  made  in  breathing,  as  the 
ear  is  placed  upon  the  chest  or  just  behind  the  elbow,  be- 
comes louder,  and  resembles  somewhat  the  crumpling  of 
paper.  If  the  sides  are  struck,  the  animal  suffers  more 
than  usual,  and  there  appears,  morning  and  evening,  a 
slight,  dry  cough,  often  short  and  painful.  This  is  the 
first  stage  of  the  malady,  and  would  not  attract  attention, 
since  the  animal  may  still  continue  to  eat,  drink,  rumi- 
nate, labor,  give  milk,  <fcc,  apparently  as  usual.  In  this 
stage  it  is  curable  under  careful  treatment. 

Then  the  trouble  rapidly  increases.  The  appetite  di- 
minishes ;  there  is  a  disinclination  to  chew  the  cud,  and  it 
is  done  by  jerks  ;  the  hair  is  dull  and  staring  ;  the  temper- 
ature of  the  skin  and  external  surfaces  is  very  uneven  ;  the 
horns  may  be  cold  and  warm  alternately,  or  the  legs  may 
appear  very  cold,  and  the  horns  or  other  parts  of  the 
body  hot.  If  in  pasture,  the  animal  withdraws  from  the 
rest  of  the  herd  ;  in  four  or  five  days  after  the  disease  is 
seated,  the  appetite  ceases  entirely  ;  the  breathing  be- 
comes quicker  and  more  labored,  the  respirations  in- 
creasing to  thirty,  forty,  or  even  forty-five  per  minute  ;  the 
nostrils  are  somewhat  dilated,  discharging  a  light,  mucous 
substance  ;  the  animal  lows,  and  appears  to  suffer  ;  in 
some  cases  it  swells  up.  The  cow  falls  off  in  milk.  In 
pressing  even  lightly  upon  the  back,  just  behind  the 
withers,  the  animal  shows  great  pain.     The  breath  grows 


ITS    CONTAGIOUS    CHARACTER.  413 

warmer,  and  often  fetid  ;  the  danger  rapidly  increases,  of 
course.  The  animal  will  often  press  her  muzzle  very 
hard  against  the  partition  as  if  for  support,  and  breathe 
from  the  mouth,  catching  her  breath  with  difficulty,  and 
soon  dies.  The  progressive  symptoms  vary  greatly,  how- 
ever, in  different  animals  ;  but  the  cough  is  the  key  note 
of  the  disease,  and  appears  in  all. 

It  is  only  in  the  early  stage  of  the  disease  that  it  is 
curable  ;  and  even  if  apparently  cured,  it  is  probable  that 
the  relief  is  only  temporary,  and  that  the  disease  is  latent 
in  the  system,  and  ready  to  appear  with  renewed  force  on 
the  occurrence  of  any  exciting  cause.  After  the  very 
early  stages,  therefore,  it  is  best  to  kill  and  bury  the 
animal,  and  thus  save  cost  and  risk  of  infection. 

There  seems  to  be  no  longer  room  for  doubt  that  the 
disease  is  contagious  or  infectious.  It  appears  to  be  com- 
municated by  animal  poison  in  the  air  proceeding  from 
the  lungs  and  breath,  or  the  respiratory  surfaces  of  a  dis- 
eased animal ;  and  any  animal  of  the  same  species,  coming 
in  contact  or  within  the  influence  of  this  vitiated  air,  is 
very  liable  to  be  infected.  It  attacks  old  animals  and 
young,  cows  in  milk  or  otherwise,  calves  and  oxen,  indis- 
criminately. 

From  Collot,  the  author  of  a  recent  and  valuable  French 
work  on  the  dairy  cow,  (Traite  special  de  la  Vache  laitiere) 
who  speaks  of  this  disease,  I  translate  as  follows :  "  This  mal- 
ady is  the  greatest  scourge  which  could  fall  upon  the  farmer ; 
it  is  hereditary  and  contagious,  and  hence  it  will  rarely 
disappear,  or  rather  never  disappear,  from  a  country 
which  it  has  once  invaded.  To  my  mind,  the  terrible 
typhus  is  less  to  be  dreaded  than  pleuro-pneumonia,  be- 
cause if  it  strikes  severely  it  may  disappear,  and  is  not 
persistent ;  the  evil  is  only  temporary  ;  while  with  pleuro- 
pneumonia it  is  lasting,  contagious  and  endemic,  or  latent, 
and  ready  to  break  out  on  any  exciting  cause.  It  is  then 
the  most  terrible  of  maladies  which  could  threaten  our 
most  valuable  herds  of  cattle  ;  and  I  cannot  comprehend 
the  apathy  of  the  government  with  regard  to  so  great  a 
calamity,  which  is  insensibly  extending  in  France,  and  en- 
dangering the  most  powerful  lever  of  our  agriculture,  neat 
35* 


414  APPENDIX. — PL  EURO- PNEUMONIA. 

cattle,  —  the  most  important  production,  and  that  which 
ought  most  to  be  encouraged,  that  of  beef.  The  German 
countries  give  us  an  example  of  energetic  measures.  Why 
should  we  hesitate  to  follow  them  ? 

"  When  the  invasion  is  well  ascertained,  public  function- 
aries should  advise  the  destruction  of  all  the  cattle  in  the 
barn  where  the  disease  has  established  itself.  If  the 
owner  refuses  to  take  this  advice,  good  as  well  for  him 
as  for  the  public  at  large,  the  public  officer  ought  to  do 
all  in  his  power  to  hem  in  the  disease,  and  to  prevent  the 
animals  from  an  infected  barn  from  being  brought  in  con- 
tact with  others  in  the  pastures,  or  to  be  driven  to  the 
markets  and  the  fairs.  In  fine,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
establish  around  the  locality  of  the  infection  a  kind  of 
cordon  sanitaire,  to  notify  the  prefect  and  the  minister  of 
agriculture,  and  to  raise  a  loud  cry  of  alarm,  because 
no  malady  has  ever  done  so  much  evil  as  pleuro-pneu- 
monia." 

The  outbreak  of  this  disease  can  be  traced  invariably  to 
the  introduction  of  cattle  from  abroad,  and  its  spread  and 
extension  can  only  be  prevented  by  the  immediate  and 
complete  isolation  of  the  infected  animals  from  others,  or 
the  destruction  of  all  animals  in  which  premonitory  symp- 
toms appear,  and  those  which  have  been  exposed  to  the 
infection. 

As  already  intimated,  the  first  stage  of  the  disease  is 
the  only  period  when  it  can  be  cured  ;  and  after  it  has 
become  fixed  upon  the  lungs,  dosing  is  of  little  use,  and 
the  animal  ought  to  be  destroyed. 

In  the  first  stage,  Collot  recommends  u  bleeding  slightly 
in  the  neck,  and  rubbing  the  whole  body  for  half  an  hour 
with  whisks  of  straw,  and  then  to  cover  the  animal  and 
leave  her  alone.  Three  or  four  hours  after  bleeding  he 
would  give  an  emetic  in  warm  water,  followed  by  eight 
similar  doses  two  hours  apart  ;  during  the  intervals  of 
the  two  hours,  moderate  quantities  of  the  following 
beverage  :  — 

"Boil  two  or  three  quarts  of  barley  for  ten  minutes  in 
about  two  gallons  of  water  ;  then  pour  off  this  water, 
which  contains  the  acrid  principles  of  the  grain,  and  re- 


COURSE    OF    TREATMENT.  415 

place  it  by  about  five  gallons  of  fresh.  Boil  this  an  hour, 
and  let  it  cool  till  lukewarm  ;  then  add  two  pounds  of 
sulphate  of  soda  or  Glauber's  salts.  Administer  dosea 
of  this  water,  strained  through  a  linen  cloth,  four  times  a 
day.  Continue  this  treatment  three,  four,  or  five  days, 
until  the  animal  is  better.  A  second  bleeding  at  the 
neck,  if  it  can  be  done,  if  not,  from  the  large  vein  in  the 
belly,  may  take  place  eight  or  ten  hours  after  the  first. 

11  When  the  animal  is  better,  give  it  at  first  some  clear, 
warm  water,  and  soon  after  increase  its  ration  of  hay, 
fresh  grass  or  roots  cut  and  mixed  with  barley  meal, 
and  a  moderate  dose  of  table  salt.  The  temperature  of 
this  water  may  be  gradually  diminished,  till  in  a  few  days 
the  animal  returns  to  its  usual  condition.  As  a  diet,  dur- 
ing treatment,  oatmeal  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  best 
articles  ;  and  it  may  be  made  into  a  thin  gruel,  with  salt 
enough  to  make  it  palatable. 

"  If  during  the  preceding  treatment  the  animal  should 
cough  a  little,  and  respiration  be  quick  and  labored,  with 
an  apparent  pain  in  the  chest,  the  tender  parts  should  be 
rubbed  with  the  following  preparation  :  — 

£  oz.  pulv.  cantharides,  (Spanish  flies.) 
i  "    euphorbia,  (a  powerful  irritant.) 
1  pint  of  alcohol. 
Mix  in  a  small  earthen  jug,  put  the  cork  in  loosely,  and 
warm   and   shake    it    up,   then    pass    through    a    linen 
strainer,  and   preserve  it   for  use  as  a   counter-irritant 
on  the  sides  of  the  chest.     Rub  the  tender  parts  of  the 
chest  in  order  to  produce  irritation,  which  will  terminate 
in    small   blisters  containing   a   reddish   liquid.      Some 
have  used  successfully  a  common  mustard  seed  poultice 
placed  on  the  sides  of  the  chest,  after  shaving  off  the  hair 
from  the   parts  ;   but  the  above  preparation  of  Spanish 
flies  is  preferable. 

"  If  the  animal  coughs  frequently,  and  the  discharge  from 
the  nostrils  is  thick  and  yellow,  and  there  is  a  rattle  in 
the  air  passages,  prepare  the  following  fumigation  :  — 

"  Boil  two  handfuls  of  mallows  in  water  for  half  an  hour, 
and  place  it,  while  boiling,  beneath  the  nose  of  the  an- 
imal, having  enveloped  its  head  with  a  cloth,  so  that  it  is 


416  APPENDIX.  —  PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

obliged  to  breathe  the  vapor.  Repeat  this  fumigation 
four  or  five  days.  If  this  discharge  continues,  pass  a 
seton  through  the  dewlap,  using  with  it  the  root  of  black 
hellebore  boiled  half  an  hour  in  vinegar. 

"  The  following  may  be  made  use  of  instead  of  the 
above  :  — 

1  oz.  sulphate  of  alumina  or  potassa. 

1  "    sulphate  of  zinc. 

1  "     Spanish  powders. 

1  "     oil  of  turpentine. 

3  "  camphor. 
Reduce  these  to  powder,  dissolve  in  one  quart  of  strong 
vinegar,  mix  in  a  bottle,  and  shake  it  well.  Raise 
the  head  of  the  animal,  and  turn  a  small  spoonful  into 
the  nasal  passages.  The  animal  will  sneeze  powerfully, 
and  throw  out  the  thick  mucus  which  obstructs  the  air 
passages.     Repeat  this  practice  for  several  days. 

"  If  the  disease  resists  this  treatment,  and  the  animal 
refuses  to  eat  or  ruminate,  or  if,  after  having  eaten,  the 
belly  is  swollen,  the  animal  froths  at  the  mouth,  lows  fre- 
quently, and  is  unable  to  lie  down,  it  is  better  to  kill  it 
at  once,  and  not,  while  losing  time,  add  to  the  danger  of 
contagion. 

"  Pleuro-pneumonia  has  not  hitherto  attacked  any  but 
neat  cattle  ;  it  has  not  extended  to  horses,  among  which 
the  contagion  is  not  to  be  apprehended." 

Mr.  Winthrop  W.  Chenery,  of  Belmont,  Mass.,  who  has 
lost  a  large  number  of  valuable  animals  by  this  malady, 
wrote  to  his  correspondents  in  Holland  for  information 
in  regard  to  the  existence  of  the  disease  in  the  locality 
from  which  some  of  his  cattle  were  obtained,  and  the 
modes  of  treatment  recommended  by  distinguished  veter- 
inary surgeons  there,  and  received  the  following  reply, 
which  he  has  very  kindly  placed  in  my  possession  :  — 

"  There  was  no  disease  prevailing  at  the  stables  where 
the  cows  were  procured,  although  a  disease  is  existing 
throughout  the  whole  country,  (Holland,)  known  as 
'  phthisis '  —  a  pulmonary  disease.  The  governments  of 
France  and  Holland  have  offered  large  sums  to  whoever 
shall  discover  a  remedy  ;  yet  none  has  as  yet  been  found. 


EFFECT     OF. INOCULATION.  417 

Cattle  infected  with  this  disease  suffer  a  long  time  before 
it  is  observable  ;  and  when  first  noticed,  they  are  usually- 
sold  to  the  butcher,  in  order  to  be  killed  for  food. 

"  There  is,  however,  much  benefit  to  be  derived  from 
inoculating  the  healthy  animals.  This  inoculation  is  done 
near  the  end  of  the  tail.  The  hair  is  clipped  off,  the 
skin  cleaned,  and  two  incisions  made  with  a  lancet,  into 
which  the  virus  is  introduced.  The  \irus  must  be  ob- 
tained from  the  lungs  of  a  cow  suffering  with  the  disease, 
and  killed  for  the  purpose,  and  not  from  an  animal  that 
has  died  in  the  natural  way  from  the  effects  of  the  dis- 
ease. The  manner  of  obtaining  it  is  to  cut  off  a  portion 
of  the  lung  between  the  healthy  and  the  infected  parts, 
the  part  marbled  like  water,  and  the  blood  is  wrung  out 
into  a  vessel  and  allowed  to  stand  one  day,  when  the 
bloody  part  will  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  a  lemon-colored 
liquid  will  remain  upon  the  surface.  This,  if  free  from 
scent,  is  fit  for  use,  and  may  be  preserved  in  a  vial.  In 
cold  weather  it  will  keep  eight  or  ten  days  before  becom- 
ing too  corrupt  for  use,  while  in  warm  weather  it  will  hold 
good  only  one  or  two  days. 

"  The  drops  introduced  into  each  incision  will  produce, 
in  a  week  or  fortnight,  and  in  some  cases  a  longer  time, 
a  pock  quite  similar  to  that  caused  by  the  inoculation  of 
persons  with  the  cow  pox.  When  no  pock  appears,  it  is 
presumed  that  the  animal  is  not  susceptible  to  the  disease. 
When  the  tail  of  the  animal  becomes  much  swollen,  an 
incision  is  made,  in  order  that  the  infectious  matter  may 
run  out,  and  the  wound  is  from  time  to  time  cleansed  with 
water. 

"  The  benefits  resulting  from  this  discovery  are  such 
that  where  the  peasants  formerly  lost  from  fifty  to  sixty 
per  cent,  of  their  cattle,  they  now  lose  only  one  per  cent. 

"  Inoculation  is  also  practised  on  animals  afflicted  with 
the  disease,  and  sometimes  with  favorable  results.  Some 
have  resorted  to  bleeding,  some  have  purged  with  English 
salt  and  water,  others  have  fumigated  and  purified  their 
stables,  but  no  sufficient  remedy  has  been  found." 

There  is,  it  is  proper  to  say,  a  difference  of  opinion 
among  scientific  practitioners  in  regard  to  the  efficacy  of 


{18  APPENDIX.  —  PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

inoculation  —  some  contending  that  it  will  produce  the 
identical  disease,  and  infect  the  animal  as  injuriously  as 
if  taken  from  the  breath  of  a  diseased  animal,  and  others 
maintaining  that  the  preponderance  of  the  testimony  is 
strongly  in  its  favor.  The  reports  of  experiments  of  the 
Dutch,  Belgian,  and  other  commissions  appointed  to  in- 
vestigate this  particular  point,  are  not  very  conclusive, 
though  the  results  of  the  most  extensive  series  of  exper- 
iments appear  very  strongly  to  favor  it. 

Prof.  Symonds,  however,  came  to  an  opposite  conclu- 
sion, after  a  careful  study  of  the  cases  that  came  under  his 
observation. 

The  causes  which  predispose  an  animal  or  herd  to  the 
attacks  of  this  disease,  Collot  remarks,  are  continued  and 
intense  cold  weather,  thick,  damp,  cold  fogs,  and  exhala- 
tions from  woods  and  wet  places,  strong  currents  of  air 
in  spring  and  autumn,  abrupt  variations  of  temperature, 
exposure  to  rains,  severe  frosts,  snows  and  storms,  bad 
and  cold,  stagnant  water  from  melted  snow  and  ice, 
drunk  while  the  animal  is  warm  ;  low,  close,  too  warm  and 
badly  ventilated  stables  ;  a  feeding  and  management  with- 
out change,  and  carried  to  extreme  for  the  production  of 
milk  or  labor,  or  insufficient  nourishment  followed  by  over- 
feeding, or  want  of  regularity.  Barns  where  the  infec- 
tion is  known  to  exist  ought  to  be  cleansed  in  the  most 
thorough  manner,  by  removing  all  the  manure,  by  wash- 
ing with  water,  chloride  of  lime,  &c,  and  then  white- 
washing, and  complete  and  long-continued  ventilation  for 
two  or  three  months  at  least  before  it  is  safe  to  introduce 
healthy  animals  into  them. 

It  may  be  proper  to  remark  that  the  Dutch  cattle,  which 
seem  to  have  been  the  means  of  introducing  the  disease, 
have  suffered  less  severely  from  it  than  others,  and  the 
short-horns  more.  The  Dutch  is  properly  regarded  as  one 
of  the  best  dairy  breeds  in  the  world ;  and  the  fact  that 
the  disease  happened  to  arrive  with  it  should  not  preju- 
dice the  mind  against  it. 


BLACK    TONGUE.  419 


BLACK   TONGUE. 

About  the  time  the  early  editions  of  this  work  were 
in  press,  another  epizootic  disease  broke  out.  and  was 
making  great  havoc  among  the  cattle  of  some  of  the 
southern  states,  especially  North  and  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Florida.  In  the  latter  state  it  attacked, 
also,  and  destroyed  vast  numbers  of  the  deer  in  the  for- 
ests, and  was  not  confined  to  neat  cattle.  This  malig- 
nant disease  was  known  as  the  black  tongue,  and  was 
ascribed  by  many  to  the  general  existence  of  rust  in  the 
grain  and  grass  crops  in  those  states.  The  early  symp- 
toms are  stiffness,  causing  the  animal  to  walk  as  though 
foundered  ;  copious  frothing  at  the  mouth,  inability  to 
take  food,  and  rapid  falling  off  in  flesh,  while  the  tongue 
and  gums  become  very  much  swollen  and  turn  black. 

This  dreadful  epizootic,  unlike  pleuro-pneumonia,  runs 
its  course  with  fearful  rapidity  ;  and  any  treatment  which 
it  is  proposed  to  try  must  be  adopted  with  promptness, 
or  it  is  wholly  useless.  It  appears  to  be  congestive  in 
its  character,  and  to  assume  a  typhoid  form.  As  soon  as 
the  presence  of  the  disease  is  suspected,  Dr.  Dadd  rec- 
ommends giving  twelve  ounces  of  table  salt  in  one  quart 
of  warm  water,  adding  to  it  two  ounces  of  tincture  of 
capsicum,  to  act  as  a  powerful  antiseptic  and  stimulating 
tonic,  and  to  relieve  the  venous  congestion. 

Sometimes  there  appears  to  be  an  accumulation  of  gas 
beneath  the  skin.  If  this  is  observed,  give  the  animal 
two  ounces  of  pyroligneous  acid,  twenty-eight  drops  of 
pure  oil  of  sassafras,  and  one  quart  of  linseed  tea.  Mix 
the  oil  with  the  tea,  and  then  add  the  acid.  Then  apply 
the  following,  rubbing  the  external  surfaces  of  the  tu- 
mors with  it :  Four  ounces  soft  soap,  half  an  ounce  oil 
of  sassafras  dissolved  in  two  ounces  of  alcohol,  two 
ounces  of  tincture  of  capsicum,  and  one  pint  of  the  tincture 
of  Peruvian  bark.  Cover  the  swollen  tongue  with  fine 
salt ;  and  as  soon  as  any  improvement  in  the  animal's 
condition  appears,  an  ounce  of  the  fluid  extract  of  cam- 
omile flowers  may  be  given  twice  daily  as  a  tonic  to  re- 
store the  appetite  and  the  general  tone  of  the  system. 


420   APPENDIX.  —  MILK  SICKNESS,   OR    TREMBLES 


MILK   SICKNESS,  OR   TREMBLES. 

In  the  timbered  regions  of  the  west  and  in  Oregon 
there  exists  a  terrible  disease  known  as  milk  sickness,  or 
trembles,  which  disappears  from  the  region  as  it  becomes 
cleared,  cultivated,  and  seeded  down  with  *the  natural 
grasses.  The  disease  is  probably  owing  to  exposure  to 
cold,  damp,  and  destructive  exhalations  from  the  soil,  and 
to  want  of  sufficient  care  and  food  —  a  treatment  which 
stock  is  too  liable  to  receive  in  the  early  settlement  of  a 
new  country.  In  a  section,  therefore,  where  the  disease 
is  known  to  exist,  the  cattle  ought  to  be  housed  or  shel- 
tered from  the  cold  night  air,  and  not  turned  out  till  the 
dews  are  dried  off;  and  their  hay  or  other  food  should 
not  be  left  exposed  on  the  ground.  If  after  it  is  thus 
exposed  to  the  dew  it  is  fed  to  a  young  animal  in  the 
morning,  it  will  be  liable  to  cause  death. 

The  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  described  as  irregular 
nervous  action,  trembling,  spasms,  and  convulsions.  The 
pulse  is  quickened,  the  tongue  slightly  swollen  and 
coated  brown,  the  urine  highly  colored,  the  bowels  con- 
stipated, and  the  breath  fetid.  In  cases  of  constipation 
give  ten  ounces  of  Glauber  salts,  one  drachm  of  powdered 
ginger,  and  one  drachm  of  goldenseal,  in  one  quart  of 
warm  water.  Rub  the  back  with  a  little  oil  of  cedar. 
If  the  breath  is  bad,  give  two  ounces  of  pyroligneous 
acid,  four  ounces  of  glycerine,  one  quart  of  water,  mixed, 
a  wine-glass  full  three  or  four  times  a  day.  Two  drachms 
of  tincture  of  Indian  hemp  given  in  a  little  water  twice 
a  day  will  relieve  the  trembling  in  cases  that  are  curable. 
During  this  treatment  the  animal  should  be  well  cared 
for,  and  fed  on  oatmeal  gruel. 

Prevention  is,  in  all  cases,  cheaper  than  cure ;  and  the 
presence  of  any  of  these  epizootic  or  endemic  diseases 
ought  to  lead  to  great  and  constant  care  of  stock. 


INDEX 


Aiton's  opinion  of  dairy  stock, 199  io» 

Albuminous  substances,  value  of  as  food, -    on 

American  cattle,  origin  of, 50,  51,  53,  54,  5o,  60 

American  cheese, oic"  qcS 

Analysis  of  milk v   .   .   .  .  .  .   .  .   .   .   .  .  .   .   .   .  •   —216.397 

««        "    cheese, 268,  269 

M         "    hay  and  grasses,    .    .  * 390»  379 

"        "    cotton-seed  cake, 127,  128,  197 

"       and  value  of  manure, 198>  398>  401 

Animals,  large  and  small, oin'JS'lll 

Annatto  for  coloring, ^DU»  ^0i»  ®^° 

Artificial  shades  in  pastures, •   •    ''    '.   ?* 

Ayrshires,  as  dairy  cows,      11, 17,  19,  22,  2o,  75,  77 

origin  and  points  of, 11,  12,  14,  16,  22,  23,  25 

«         yiefdof.     . 18,19,20,25 

Barn,  plan  of  a, 150,151,153 

"      cellar,  convenience  of, 1^* 

"      temperature  of  for  cows, n'o^Q^i 

Bean-vines,  value  of, •    •   }™>  3™>  3  71 

Beauty  of  stock, 28,36,41,72,73,104 

Berkshire  swine,  crosses  of  the, 362,  363 

Boussingault's  equivalents, 12a,  126 

Breed,  meaning  of  the  term, ni    go 

Breed,  an  element  in  judging  dairy  cows, o«i 

Breeds,  some  must  be  kept  pure, 3^1 

Bull,  selection  of  for  breeding, 62,  63,  66,  75,  77 

Butter,  origin  of, 21  < 

"       not  made  by  the  early  Jews, ~|7 

"       from  cream  first  skimmed  the  best 218 

«       making  of,    ....   220,221,228,229,230,232,302,309,320 
«       modes  of  churning,      ....    225,226,228,232,309,311,318 

«       salting  of,  ... 238,  321,  386 

"       composition  of, 121,  239,  379 

"       producing  localities, 392 

M       quantity  of  milk  to  make  a  pound  of, 382 

<<       qualities  of, 239,  391,  409 

"       worker, 226,  231,  235,  236 

"       from  poor  and  rich  pastures, •    •  391 

"       use  of  the  sponge  to  remove  butter-milk,     ......     231,  2o4 

«       fatoroilof,. 239,240 

36 


422  INDEX. 

Butter,  in  winter ■    *»•  j*j-  «» 

::  L'eTchurning; :::::: : : : : :  •  «*«:»» 
::  *s9SK?^::::::::::«.»Sa 

"       coloring  of, '  „„q 

«       made  by  burying  cream, •    •    •    •    •  "™ 

Butter-milk,  use  of, d2y»  o4o>  *°J 

"  proportions  of, ' 

Buyinsr  dairy  stock, 1q 

Black  tongue,  symptoms  and  treatment  oi, •   -*» 

Odyea   raisins  of       155,156,157,160,162,165,167 

w      valu*  of  Guenon's  method  of  judging,  .    .   .   .   -   -    102,  11",  l&o 

«      feeding  of  by  hand, 15,,  159,  160,  163 

"      diseases  of, ?S  i*q    290 

«      must  have  the  first  milk, lo?»    5^f" 

«      immediately  taken  from  the  cow •      ,2-»  rr^ 

"      starving  and  over-feeding, 165 

"      feeding  hay-tea  to, *    "  ^ 

«      food  required, » •   •   "     -,«,{' 975 

Calving,  treatment  of  the  cow  at, SJ7  W 

Cattle,  importance  of  weighing, 388 

"      fattening  of, 2qi 

Cheddar  cheese,  mode  of  making, _ 

"  ■«        analysis  of, 241 

Cheese,  early  history  of, •    •    •    •    •    *    '  ~ 

«       composition  of,      121,  122,  2b», -by 

::  ^^sLTmii  —  ::::::::::  s^atsa 
:  aaS^ : : ::: ::::-88ga 

::  £ir"S:w,;»».;»:».  |l:|«:s 

salting,  . 2  5   330   348 

•<       varieties  of, *****  *~  '  9-0'  g-3 

"       coloring  of, 0 '     X,-'  0^0 

«       Cheshire,  how  made, *».  »•  g 

«       Stilton,        "       "        260*269 

;:  ?™r';:  ;:      ::.::  ™:T™ 

»       Cheddar,     "  269'  2?0 

::  SifiBS** :•••...:■■•«.«.'«•» a 

«       Gouda,       "        - o30,  331,  339,  j>H 

;;   Eda^er'  "    " ; :  335, 337/342,'  351 

"       moulds,      '  ,r(,'  9r-'  9ro 

Cheshire  cheese,  mode  of  making, 283' 284 

Choking   cure  for       •    •  227,  228,  "310,  312',  315 

aaST?- : :::::::  '*&********» 

M         temperature  for 31 1'  313 

"    I*  iever» :;;..'.  317 

by  dog-power, 225  31« 

Clea^^rs^qnSite,:   '.  1  '.  "  14*  *£.  255,  Vob.884,  Mo'.  357 


INDEX.  423 

Climate  and  its  effect  on  stock, 1(3,  3T 

Clover,  value  of  for  milch  cows, 183,  184,  187 

Constitution,  indications  of,      86,  104 

Cool-bath,  use  of  the, 303,  304 

Costiveness  in  calves,  treatment  of, 291,292 

Cotton-seed  meal,  analysis  and  use  of, 127,  128,  197 

Cows,  in  the  natural  or  wild  state 9,68,13b 

"      "  calf,  treatment  of, 130,131 

«■     classification  of, 102,  106,  108,  109 

Cream,  treatment  of,      236,  378,  385 

*'       difference  in  quality, 377,  380 

Cream-pots, 34,  298,  308 

Crosses  and  their  results, 23,  54,  55,  58,  62,  63,  74,  77 

Dairy  cows,  management  of,     .    .     113,  116,  117,  119,  123,  140,  367,  392 

'*        "      too  many  for  the  food,      113,116 

"      regularity  of  feeding,       117,119,120,133,137 

«      room, 233,  237,  383,  384,  386 

«■      utensils,  treatment  of, 296,  297,  299,  322,  347 

Dairy -fed  pork,  excellence  of, t  361 

Dairyman's  motto, 117,  120 

Dairy-woman,  letter  to  a, 355 

Denmark  cattle, 53 

Diarrhoea,  cause  and  treatment  of, 287,  291 

Digestive  organs, 22,  86,  109,  130,  277 

Diseases  of  dairy  stock, 271,279,286,290 

Dunlop  cheese, 261,262,264 

44  "       analysis  of, . 269 

Dutch  cattle,    .   .   . 14,  15,  32,^7,  52,  104,  107 

Dysentery,  symptoms  and  treatment  of, 288 

Early  maturity,  importance  of, 23,  36,  362,  364 

Elements  of  food, 116,120,122,125,138,397 

Escutcheon,  form  of  the,  24,  65,  66,  69,  91,  93,  95,  97,  99,  101,  103,  105 

transmission  of  the, 65,66,67,68,70 

"  of  calves, 102,110,155 

Exceptional  and  characteristic  qualities, 9,  59,  68 

External  signs  of  milkers,      80,87,88,89,110 

False  presentations  in  calving,      274,  275 

Fat  of  animals,  how  formed,      120,121,127,374 

"    forming  elements, 120,  122,  128,  381 

Feeding,  course  of,      .    .  118,  123,  124,  127,  129,  131,  133,  138,  140,  168 

Food  and  shelter, 10,  56,  113,  116,  117,  119,  136,  168 

"    to  produce  quantity, 117,122,127,136,139,387 

"    adapted  to  the  animal, 381,  396 

"    economy  of, 400 

"    bulk  of, 144,  381 

"     variety  of  required, 121,  143,  144 

"    steaming  the, 387,  396 

Foul  in  the  foot,  treatment  of, 284' 

Garget,  symptoms  and  treatment, 271,  272 

Gentleness  in  the  "are  of  stock, 147,148,164 


424  INDEX. 


Gloucester  cheese,  mode  of  mating, 260,261 

analysis  of,      269 

Grade  and  native  cattle, 49,  54,  55,  60,  74. 

Grasses,  culture  of  the,      169,170,172,176,180 

varieties  of  pasture, 169,170,184,185 

•*        cutting  and  curing  of, 186,  187 

Grass-fed  cows, 123,  124,  133,  137 

Great  milkers,  form  of, 28,  72,  104 

Guenon's  method  of  judging  cows 24,64,90,91,92,109 

"  "         explanation  of, •   .    .      65,  91 

Hafting  and  its  results, 21 

Harley's  experience, 20,  137 

Hay  cut  and  moistened,  value  of, 117,  122,  127 

Hereditary  qualities, 24,  6r 

ilerefoi'ds,  origin  and  characteristics  of, 38,  40,  43 

Hornless  cattle, 78 

Hoove,  cause  and  cure  of,      ,•    •    •    282,283,292 

Hoose,  treatment  of,      286 

Horsfall's  system  of  feeding, 138,365,370,380,383 

Hubback,  fame  of, 32,  33 

Hungarian  cattle, 78 

Ice,  use  of  in  the  dairy, 236,240,244 

Ice-creams,  modes  of  making, 214,  215 

Inflammation  of  the  glands,  treatment  of, 286 

"    "    lungs,  "  " 286 

Indian  corn,  culture  and  curing  ^or  fodder, 188,  189 

Jersey  cattle,  origin  and  characteristics  of, 26,  27,  29,  30 

"         "        Haxton's  opinion  of, 27 

"       cows,  milk  of, 30,  76,  391 

Lactometer,  use  of, 149,210,211 

Letter  to  a  dairy -woman, 355 

Lice  on  cows,  how  to  get  rid  of, 28?> 

Linseed-meal,  value  and  use  of, 128,  197,  381 

London  dairies, 35,  74,  136 

Loss  of  cud,  cure  for, 290 

Male,  selection  of  the, 62,66,75,77,362 

Mange,  symptoms  and  cure  of, 288 

Manures,  economy  and  use  of, 154,  198,  400,  401 

Medicine  chest,  importance  of, 293,  294 

"         easily  procured, »    •    •     293,  294 

Milch  cows,  yield  of, 18,20,25,116,133,301,372 

"       "       selection  of, 10,  61,  64,  67,  71,  79,  80,  86 

"       "       teeth  of, 81,  83,  85,  86 

Milk,  nature  and  composition  of, 199,  200,  201,  203,  216,  369 

"      oily  parts  of, 200,204,216,217,218,239,389 

"      cheesy  parts  of, 200,204,216,241,369,389,400 

•*      temperature  for  raising  cream,      .    .    .  200,  201,  205,  212,  228,  233 

"   curdling, 244,  245,  246,  253,  267 

41      intoxicating  liquor  from, 201,202 

«      difference  in  quality, 203,  207,  209,  219,  375,  383 


INDEX.  425 

Milk,  specific  gravity  of, 203,  209,  210 

"      setting  for  cream,    .    .  205,  207,  222,  223,  225,  228,  232,  234,  308 

' '      effect  of  climate  on  the  quantity, 207 

"      treatment  of.  .    .    207,  208,  212,  219,  221,  223,  295,  302,  308 

"      adulterating, 208,  209 

"      ice-creams  from, 214 

"      of  spayed  cows, 215 

"      measures  for, 216,  296 

44      room, 221,222,231,383 

"      testing  the  quality  of, 149,209,211,376,397 

"      feeding  for, 56,  114,  115,  117,  123,  127,  129,  131,  132 

"      greatest  yield  of  on  grass, 123,124,132,137 

Milk-fever,  symptoms  and  treatment  of, 275,  276,  277,  278 

Milking,  manner  of  affects  the  yield, 145,  146,  147 

"        women  best  adapted  for, 149,  295 

"        in  the  Dutch  dairies,      - 295 

qualities,  artificial, 9,  68,  136,  148 

Milk-mirror,  transmission  of  the, 66,67,68,70 

"  form  of  the,  .  24,  6o^  06,  67,  69,  90,  91,  93,  95,  97,  99,  101 

"  explanation  of  the,      65 

Milk-pans,  forms  of, 223,  224,  296,  306 

Milk-yoke,  use  of  the, 2.^5,296 

Milk-veins,  size  of  the,      88,104,106,110 

Millet,  culture  and  value  of, 189 

Mixed  food,  conducive  to  health, 121,  143 

Moist  and  succulent  food,  ....    117,  122,  127,  133,  136,  139,  144,  387 

Milk  sickness  or  Trembles, 420 

Native  or  grade  cattle, '. 14,  49,  50,  54,  56,  60,  61 

Nitrogenous  substances,  value  of, 122,128,381 

North  Devons,  origin  and  qualities  of, 44,  45,  47,  76 

Nutritive  value  of  articles  of  food, 125,  126 

Oakes  cow,  yield  of, 72,  73 

Oil-cake,  value  of, 127    129,  381 

Origin  of  breeds  and  races, 9 

Parmesan  cheese,  mode  of  making, 266,360 

Parturition,  treatment  at, 131,273,274 

Pastures,  different  qualities  of, 391 

Patton  stock, 35 

Philadelphia  butter,  quality  of, 230,  234 

Points  of  a  dairy  cow, 21,  22,  47,  51,  64,  73,  80,  86,  88,  110 

Pork,  best  quality  of, 362 

Practice  in  judging  stock, 80 

Principles  of  breeding, 23,  32,  58,  61,  62,  69,  71,  74 

Puerperal  fever,  treatment  of, 275,  276 

Purgatives  in  use  for  cattle,      281 

Pleuro-Pneumonia,  treatment  of, 411 

Rape-cake,  value  of  as  food,         381,391 

Red  water,  treatment  of, 285 

Regularity,  importance  of, 117,  119,  133,  137,  143 

Relative  size  of  male  and  female,      16,62,70,71,362 

Rennet,  how  prepared,      247,  248,  249,  259,  332,  349 

use  of, 255,  257,  332 

Rings  on  the  horns, 81 

36* 


426  iNDEX. 


Roots  for  stock, 118,119,122,127,137,138,39(3 

"     culture  of, 191,  192,  193,  196 

Rye,  culture  and  use  of, .190 

Scours  in  calves,  treatment  of, 291 

Selection  of  cows, 10,61,71,79,80,86,110,111 

Shaving  the  milk-mirror, 95 

Short-horns,  origin  and  characteristics  of, 31,33,35 

"  influence  on  American  cattle, 34,  35,  74 

beef  of  the, 36,42,43 

Simple  fever,  symptoms  and  treatment,      279,  280 

Size  of  animals,  relative, 10,  70,  111 

Skim-milk  cheese, 243,  266,  331,  360 

Slinking  the  calf, 274 

Soiling,  plants  for, 132,135,142,143,144 

advantages  of, 141,  142,143 

Sponge  and  cloth,  use  of  the, 231,232,234,358 

Spring,  treatment  of  cows  in, 131,  133,  137 

Square  box  the  best  churn, 228 

Stamping  of  butter, 323,  359 

Stilton  cheese,  mode  of  making, 259,  260 

Stock,  improvement  of, 57,58,60,63,71,168 

"      selection  of, 10,  58,  60,  64,  66,  71,  86 

"      age  of, 80,  81 

Suffolk  swine,  crosses  with, 362,  363 

Surfeited  cows,  treatment  of, 138,  290 

Swill-milk,  how  produced, 144,  208,  209,  216 

Swine,  the  kind  of  wanted, 362,363 

"       treatment  of, 364 

Symptomatic  fever,  treatment  of, 280 

Teeth,  indicative  of  age,      81,83,85,86 

The  piggery, 361,  364 

Time  a  cow  should  run  dry, 130,  131,  273 

"    of  calving, 131,272,273 

Treatment  of  dairy  stock,    56,  130,  131,  133,  134,  136,  138,  140,  148,  168 
Typhoid  fever,  treatment  of, 281 

Udder,  attention  to  the, 43,  88,  89,  104,  108,  272 

"      structure  of  the, 145,146,202 

Vegetable  oils,      379,  389,  409 

Virginia,  importation  of  cattle  to, 35,  50 

Warbles,  injure  the  hide, 290 

Warmth  and  ventilation  requisite, 136,  149 

Whey,  use  of  the, 344,354 

Willowbank  dairy, 20,  137 

Winter  food  for  cows, 127,  131,  134,  136,  139 

Wood  for  butter  casks  and  firkins, 324 

Yorkshire  cattle,  notice  of, 30,  32,  35,  74 

Touatt's  opinion, 18,  47,  272,  277 


